The Decline and Fall of the Later Mughals: Weakness and Disintegration

The Later Mughal period witnessed a decline in the once-mighty empire, marked by weak leadership, succession conflicts, and economic strain. Aurangzeb’s strict religious policies strained relations with non-Muslims, while foreign invasions and internal strife further destabilized the empire. Rise of independent states, like Hyderabad and Bengal, and the emergence of European powers posed significant challenges to Mughal authority, leading to its eventual downfall.

An Overview of The Decline and Fall of the Later Mughals

1. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712 AD)

• Muazzam’s Reign: Also known as Muazzam, he ascended to the throne in his 60s. He died around 1712 AD during a campaign against Banda Bahadur, a rebel Sikh leader.
• Administration: He adopted a generous policy towards nobles, granting them their preferred territories, causing financial strains, with the real power purportedly held by the wazir, Zulfiqar Khan. 
  • Mughal historians have entitled him “Shah-i-Bekhabar,” due to his administrative inefficiency.
  • Religious Policy: Demonstrated tolerance towards Hindus, although he didn’t abolish the jizya tax. 
• Events/Conquests:  Hesitancy in reconciliation with Marathas and failure to grant them complete concessions led to persistent conflicts. 
  • Initiated peace with Guru Gobind Singh, but subsequent Sikh rebellions post the Guru’s death saw him leading campaigns against the Sikhs.
  • Recognised the independence of Marwar and Mewar but couldn’t make them staunch allies.

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2. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713 AD)

• After Bahadur Shah’s death, Mughal politics changed, with nobles becoming the king-makers and the emperors becoming their puppets. Jahandar Shah emerged as the first puppet ruler, with Zulfiqar Khan(Wazir) holding real power. 
• Administrative Policies:  He established friendly ties with Marathas, Rajputs, and other Hindu chieftains.
• • Ajit Singh of Marwar: was given the title of “Maharaja“
  • Jai Singh of Amber: was given the title Mirza Raja Sawai.
  • Suppression: Maintained a suppressive stance against Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs.
  • He ordered the abolition of the Jizya tax.
• Financial Reforms and Challenges: Tried to resolve the financial woes of the empire by regulating the allocation of jagirs and ensuring nobles maintained their official troop quotas, but faced criticism for introducing the Ijarah system, or revenue farming.
• End of Reign: His reign ended in 1713 after the defeat at Agra by Farrukh Siyar, his nephew.

3. Farruk Siyar (1713-1719 AD)

• Reign of Incompetence: He was known for his incapacity to rule and dependence on unworthy advisors. He came to power with the help of the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Husain Ali Khan Baraha (Mir Bakshi). 
• Administration: He abolished Jizyah and the pilgrim tax were abolished and
  • In 1717 CE, Farrukh Siyar granted significant trading privileges to the East India Company and exempted customs duties for their trade through Bengal.
• Death: Unwilling to cede personal authority to the Sayyid brothers, Farruk Siyar was killed in 1719.

4. Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) (1719-1748 AD)

• Fall of the Sayyid Brothers: He ousted the Sayyid brothers around 1720 with help from Nizam-ul-Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan, and Muhammad Amir Khan
• Administration: Under his reign, several states declared independence:
  • Nizam-ul-Mulk ruling the Deccan, 
  • Saadat Khan leading Awadh, and
  • Murshid Quli Khan governing Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.
• Nadir Shah’s Invasion:  The fragility of the Mughal Empire was exposed when Nadir Shah invaded India around 1739 AD.

5. Alamgir II (1754-1759 AD)

• The famous Battle of Plassey, 1757 AD, took place during his reign. This battle facilitated the British East India Company’s takeover of Bengal.

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6. Shah Alam II (1759-1806 AD)

• Resistance Against British East India Company: In 1764, he, alongside Mir Qasim and Shuja-ud-Daula, waged war against the English East India Company but faced defeat at the Battle of Buxar. 
• Return to Delhi: Subsequently, he resided in Allahabad as a British pensioner (first one) until 1772, when he returned to Delhi under Maratha protection.

7. Akbar II (1806-1837 AD)

• Reign under British Protection: Son of Shah Alam II, reigned under British protection post-1803 AD capture of Delhi by the British, noted for bestowing the title of “Raja” upon Ram Mohan Roy.
• Cultural Initiatives and Promotion of Unity: Acknowledged as a distinguished poet, initiated the Phool Walon Ki Sair, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. 
• Decline of Mughal Authority: During his reign, the East India Company discontinued calling itself the subject of the Mughal emperor and stopped issuing coins in the name of the Mughal emperor.

8. Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857 AD)

• Final Mughal Emperor: Last Mughal Emperor and celebrated Urdu poet under the pen name “Zafar.” 
• Leadership in the 1857 Revolt: Played a pivotal role in the 1857 Revolt and was proclaimed the Emperor of India by the rebels.
• Exile and Death: Post-revolt, he faced exile in Rangoon (modern-day Myanmar) and died there in 1862.

9. Reasons for the Decline of Mughals

• Weak Leadership and Succession Conflicts: The lack of clear succession laws led to a war of succession, weakening the empire, especially post-Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb’s Policies: Religious orthodoxy strained relations with non-Muslim subjects.
• Economic Strain and Administrative Inefficiency: Shah Jahan‘s extravagant construction projects and Aurangzeb’s prolonged southern campaigns severely depleted the treasury. 
  • The empire became too vast to manage, and distant provinces gained independence due to the administrative inefficiency of later Mughals.
• Foreign Invasions and Internal Strife: Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali destabilised the empire, causing further financial strain. 
  • Corruption and internal strife eroded the administrative framework.
• Rise of the Independent States and Regional Powers: The 18th century saw the rise of virtually independent states like Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh, contributing to the empire’s disintegration. 
  • The Marathas consolidated in Western India, nurturing ambitions for a larger empire challenging Mughal authority.
• Deteriorating Land Relations: The use of  Jagirs (temporary land allotments) and Paibaqi (revenue from reserved lands) over direct treasury payments led to conflicts between nobles and zamindars.
• Advent of European Powers: The emergence of the British and other European colonial powers marked the advent of new political entities, posing challenges that the crumbling Mughal Empire found nearly impossible to surmount.

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Conclusion

The decline of the Later Mughals was a result of various factors including weak leadership, economic strain, and foreign invasions. The rise of independent states and the emergence of European powers further contributed to the disintegration of the once-vast empire. Ultimately, the Mughal Empire succumbed to internal strife, external pressures, and the changing geopolitical landscape of the Indian subcontinent.

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