Emerging Biological Technologies: Neuroinformatics, Neuroprosthetics and Biotechnology

Emerging biological technologies are revolutionizing biology. Neuroinformatics unlocks nervous system mysteries, while neuroprosthetics offer hope for those with neurological conditions. Microbial fuel cells promote sustainability, and biotechnology drives innovation in healthcare and agriculture.

Emerging Technologies in Biology

Neuroinformatics: 

• It seeks to create and maintain web-accessible databases of experimental and computational data, together with innovative software tools, essential for understanding the nervous system in its normal function and in neurological disorders. 
• Neuroinformatics includes traditional bioinformatics of gene and protein sequences in the brain; atlases of brain anatomy and localisation of genes and proteins; imaging of brain cells; brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG) and other methods.

Neuroprosthetics: 

• These devices are designed to interact with the nervous system and restore function to address losses of motility, sensation, quality and ease of living due to injury or disease. 
• Neuroprosthetics is a multidisciplinary field at the interface between neurosciences and biomedical engineering. 
• The first commercially available cochlear implant was developed in 1972; it remains the most successful clinical neuroprosthesis. 
  • Neuroprosthetic interfaces can record from and/or stimulate select areas of the nervous system, traditionally via electrodes placed near the cells or tissues of interest.
  • When localised to the central nervous system (i.e., the brain and spinal cord), such devices are referred to as brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) or brain-computer interfaces (BCIs).
  • Bionic Eyes are visual prostheses that provide artificial vision to visually impaired people who could previously see.
• Microbial fuel cells: These are bioreactors that convert the energy in the chemical bonds of organic compounds into electrical energy through the catalytic activity of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions.
• Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have shown immense potential as a one-stop solution for three major sustainability issues confronting the world today- energy security, global warming and wastewater management. 

Biotechnology

• The term biotechnology was used for the first time by Karl Erkey, a Hungarian Engineer, in 1919. 
• It is the application of the principles of engineering and biological science to create new products from raw materials of biological origin, for example, vaccines or food. 
• The two core fields that enabled the birth of modern biotechnology are:
  • Genetic engineering: It includes techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) to introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
  • Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.

Recombinant DNA Technology [UPSC 2013]

• Recombinant DNA: A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
• Restriction Enzymes: Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases.
  • These are of two kinds: exonucleases and endonucleases.
  • Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA, whereas endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
  • Restriction endonucleases are used in genetic engineering to form recombinant molecules of DNA, which are composed of DNA from different sources/ genomes.

• Separating DNA molecules:
  • The fragments produced by restriction enzymes would not be of much use if we could not also easily separate them for analysis.
  • The most common separation technique used is gel electrophoresis.
  • This technique takes advantage of the negative charge on DNA molecules by using an electrical field to provide the force necessary to separate DNA molecules based on size.
  • The separated DNA fragments can be visualised after staining the DNA with a compound known as ethidium bromide, followed by exposure to UV radiation.
• Cloning Vectors: Vectors used at present, are engineered in such a way that they help easy linking of foreign DNA and selection of recombinants from non-recombinants.
• Origin of replication: This is a sequence from where replication starts, and any piece of DNA when linked to this sequence, can be made to replicate within the host cells.
• Plasmid: A plasmid is a small circular piece of DNA found in bacterial cells that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently.
• Selectable marker: which helps in identifying and eliminating non-transformants and selectively permitting the growth of the transformants. Transformation is a procedure through which a piece of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium.
• Cloning sites: In order to link the alien DNA, the vector needs to have very few, preferably single, recognition sites for the commonly used restriction enzymes.
• Methods of Insertion of DNA in Host Cells:
  • Micro-injection: recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
  • Biolistic or gene gun: In this process, particles of heavy metals are coated with a gene of interest. Cells are then bombarded with high-velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA in a method known as biolistics or gene gun. This method is suitable for plants.
• Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations: Restriction enzyme digestions are performed by incubating purified DNA molecules with the restriction enzyme.
• Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR: PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction. It is a laboratory method used to make many copies of a specific piece of DNA from a sample that contains very tiny amounts of that DNA.
• Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product: The Transformed cells produce products of genes of interest which are isolated for further uses.

Conclusion

These cutting-edge technologies promise to transform biology, medicine, and our environment. From brains to biofuels, the future holds immense potential. Responsible development and collaboration are key to unlocking the benefits for all.

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