Rise of the Marathas Under Shivaji: From Guerrilla Warfare to Empire Building

In the 1670s, Shivaji led the Marathas to challenge Mughal dominance and establish their own power in central India. Rising from a mix of agrarian castes, they excelled in guerrilla warfare, aided by a strong sense of unity fostered by the Bhakti movement. The downfall of Bijapur and Golconda further fueled Shivaji’s ambitions, leading to the rise of the Marathas as a formidable force.

An Overview Of Rise of the Marathas Under Shivaji

1. Maratha Identity and Rise of Shivaji

• About Marathas
  • Mix of Various Agrarian Castes: who distinguished themselves by their military service traditions, earning land grants in return. 
  • Military Service: They served in the armies of the Bahamani kingdom and successor states. 
    • Bijapur rulers like Ibrahim Adil Shah used them as a counterbalance to their Deccani and Afaqi units.
• Causes for the Rise of Maratha
  • Region and Terrain: They resided in the narrow, strategically defensible region of Konkan, known for its rugged mountains and secluded valleys.
  • Character and Skills: With a heritage of military valour and proficiency in guerrilla warfare, executing swift surprise attacks and autonomously adapting tactics as needed.
  • Bhakti movement, led by Tukaram, Ramdas, and Eknath, with their Marathi hymns created widespread societal bonds and unified them.
  • Other reasons: The downfall of Bijapur and Golconda, coupled with exhaustive Deccan wars, led Shivaji to unite the fragmented Marathas.         
• Origin and Influence: Born in Shivner near Junnar to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai, Shivaji was influenced by saints like Tukaram and Ramdas (his guru).
• Shivaji’s Maratha Empire: The Marathas, under Shivaji’s leadership in the 1670s, were instrumental in diminishing the Mughal power and replacing it effectively in central India by the mid-18th century. 
  • They also established control in Thanjavur from 1674 and maintained it until Serfoji II’s demise in 1832.   

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2. Shivaji’s Military Campaigns

• Early Fort Acquisitions: At a young age, he acquired the Torna fort from Bijapur Sultan in 1646. Further, he captured and rebuilt the Raigad Fort. He took control of the forts of Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar, and Kondana.
• Expansion into the Maval Region: In 1656, he became popular as he wrested Javali (Satara district) from its Maratha chief, took control of the highlands (Maval region) and constructed the Pratapgarh fort, paving the way for further expansion.
• Naval Strategy against the Sidis: Recognising naval significance, he built a fleet to confront the Sidis of Janjira  who managed several ports and had a large navy; he couldn’t overpower them due to ineffective artillery.
• Confrontation Against Bijapur:
• • Aurangzeb’s Withdrawal: from the Deccan to join the war of succession post-Shah Jahan’s death and the rise of Adil Shah II in Bijapur created circumstances for the conflict.  
  • Afzal Khan’s Provocation: Shivaji attacked the Bijapur, occupying northern Konkan. This provoked Ali Adil Shah II to send General Afzal Khan in 1659, whose forces desecrated Hindu sites, including the revered Pandharpur. 
  • Shivaji’s Response and Expansion: Shivaji responded by killing Afzal Khan followed by seizing Panhala fort and territories in southern Konkan and Kolhapur.

3. Shivaji and the Mughals

• 1658: Aurangzeb became Emperor and assigned Shaista Khan (Mughal governor of Deccan) in the Deccan the task to quell Shivaji, resulting in the capture of  Pune and Chakan. 
• 1663: Aurangzeb recalled Shaista from the Deccan when Shivaji infiltrated Poona and struck Shaista Khan’s camp. 
• 1664: Shivaji plundered Surat, a significant Mughal port, prompting Aurangzeb to deploy Raja Jai Singh to counter him and capture Bijapur. With a comprehensive encirclement, Shivaji was forced to negotiate, paving the way for the Treaty of Purandar in 1665. 
• Treaty of Purandar:
  • Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. 
  • He was to serve as Mughal Mansabdar and join the Mughals against Bijapur.
  • The Mughals recognised the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the Bijapur kingdom. 
  • As Shivaji was exempted from personal service of the Mughals, his minor son Sambhaji was granted a Mansab of 5000 zat.
• 1666: Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the Mughal court in Agra where he faced disrespect and humiliation. He was put under house arrest, which he successfully escaped.
• 1670: Aurangzeb reclaimed a portion of Shivaji’s jagir in Berar. Shivaji retaliated by withdrawing his troops from the Mughal service, reclaimed the forts surrendered in the Treaty of Purandar and raided Surat again. By 1672, the Marathas imposed a Chauth (one-fourth of the revenue) as an annual tribute on Surat.
• 1672: The Battle of Salher: Marathas won decisively against the Mughals. Salher Fort is situated near present-day Nashik. 
• Coronation and Deccan Campaigns
  • In 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigarh, assuming the title of “Chhatrapathi” (supreme king). The day of his consecration marked the commencement of a new era, the Rajyabhisheka saka.
  • He described himself as “the protector of cows and brahmins” (gobrahmance pratipalak) and “the upholder of dharma” (dharma parayena).
• Diplomacy under Shivaji: In 1677, he forged an anti-Mughal, anti-Bijapur alliance with Golconda (richest of Deccani states) and ravaged Mughal territory in Berar, Khandesh and Baglan and Bijapur territory in Kanara. 
  • He secured Panhala fort and Satara. 
  • He conquered areas of Senji and Vellore allowing his half-brother, Venkoji (or Ekoji), to govern Thanjavur, with Senji serving as a secondary line of defense for his successors.
• Cultural and Administrative Reforms: He replaced Persian with Marathi as the court language and ordered the compilation of a Sanskrit dictionary, the Raj-Vyavahar Kosh.
• Last Days of Shivaji: Shivaji died in 1680, having successfully established and defended a kingdom against the superior Bijapur and Mughal forces. 

4. Marathas after Shivaji

• Shambhaji: succeeded Shivaji. Around the same time, rebel Prince Akbar, dissenting against Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu policies, sought refuge in the Maratha court and declared himself Emperor in 1681. 
  • Further, Shambhaji’s attacks on Mughal territories in Khandesh, prompted Aurangzeb to lead a massive expedition to the Deccan. 
• Aurangzeb’s Expansion into the Deccan: Aurangzeb made a deal with the Mewar Rajputs and invaded the Deccan, annexing Bijapur (1686) and Golkonda (1687). 
• Death of Sambhaji: Mughals captured and killed Sambhaji in 1689.
• Rise of Rajaram: Post Shambhaji’s execution, the Marathas, under their new ruler Rajaram, demonstrated resilience against Aurangzeb. 
  • Despite being under siege, Rajaram escaped to Jinji/Senji and started guerrilla warfare against the Mughal forces and expanded Maratha’s influence. 
  • However, the Mughals captured Shambhaji’s son Sahu.
• Decentralization and Expansion of Maratha Power: The Maratha movement now became more decentralised, with individual commanders raising their own armies and attacking Mughal forces at will. 
  • They also started collecting chauth in Gujarat and Deccan areas.
  • The conflict escalated with Aurangzeb’s attacks on Marathas. 
• Succession Dispute: After Rajaram died in 1700, his wife Tara Bai declared her son Shivaji II as king and herself as the regent. 
• European Trading Companies: Taking advantage of the political turmoil in the region, the European trading companies were strengthening their footholds in India.

5. Shahu’s Reign(1707-1749) and Peshwa’s Rise

• Shahu’s Claim to the Throne: Shahu, Sambhaji’s son (released after Aurangzeb’s death), claimed the Maratha throne. 
• Support of Balaji Viswanath: This was objected to by Tara Bai, resulting in a civil war. With support from Balaji Viswanath, Shahu emerged victorious and assumed the throne in 1708.
• Appointment of Balaji as Peshwa: In gratitude, Shahu appointed Balaji as the Peshwa in 1713, who eventually became the de facto ruler, governing from Poona while Shahu resided in Satara.
• Rivalry and Succession
  • Tara Bai: established a parallel government in Kolhapur. However, in 1714, she and her son were imprisoned by Raja Bai (the second wife of Rajaram) and her son, Sambhaji II to ascend Kolhapur’s throne and acknowledge Shahu’s overlordship. 
  • Rajaram II/Ramraja (1749 – 1777 AD): He was the adopted son of Shahu. Tarabai presented him as the grandson of Rajaram to take control of the state. 
    • However, Peshwa Baji Rao retained him as the titular Chhatrapati. The power of the Chhatrapati was almost completely overshadowed by that of the Peshwa.
  • Shahu II: the adopted son of Rama Raja, ruled till his death in 1808 as a non-entity. His successor, Pratap Singh, was deposed by the Britishers in 1839 on the charges of plotting against the British Government. 
  • Pratap Singh: died as a prisoner in 1847. His younger brother, Shaji Appa Saheb (Shaji II), was made king by the British in 1839.  
    • Shahji II died in 1848 without a successor.

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Conclusion

Despite facing challenges after Shivaji’s reign, the Marathas persisted under leaders like Shahu and the Peshwas. Their resilience against Mughal attacks and internal conflicts shaped the course of Indian history, laying the groundwork for the emergence of regional powers in the subcontinent.

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