Slave or Mamluk Dynasty : Architects of Medieval India

The Slave or Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290 AD) marked a significant era in Indian history, characterized by the rise of slave generals to the throne. Beginning with Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a trusted slave of Muhammad Ghori, who founded the dynasty after Ghori’s death, the period saw remarkable developments in administration, architecture, and military strategies. Subsequent rulers like Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, and Balban left indelible marks on the Sultanate, shaping its trajectory amidst internal strife and external threats.

Slave or Mamluk Dynasty: Qutub-ud-din Aibak and the Birth of the Slave Dynasty

1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210 AD)

• Ghori’s Handover to Qutub-ud-din Aibak: Muizzuddin Muhammad (also known as Muhammad Ghori), after the Battle of Tarain (1191,1192; Karnal, Haryana), returned to Ghazni and handed over the affairs to his trusted slave Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
• Founding of the Slave Dynasty: Aibak severed relations with Ghazni after Ghori’s death and founded the Slave dynasty in India, declaring himself the Sultan, with Lahore as the capital of his kingdom.
  • This kept India away from Central Asian politics.
• Epithet of “Lakh Baksh”: He is also known as “Lakh Baksh” (Donor of lakhs) for his generosity and liberal donations.
• Assistance of Muhammad Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji: a Turkish general from Afghanistan, assisted him in conquering Bihar and Bengal.
• Allegations Against Bhakthiyar Khalji: Bhakthiyar Khalji is charged with destroying the University of Nalanda in Bihar.
• Death of Qutub-ud-din Aibak: Aibak died in 1210 AD after falling from his horse while playing chaugan (Polo).

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• Architecture: Constructed two mosques: Quwat-ul-Islam in Delhi and Arhai din ka Jhonpra in Ajmer.
• • Commissioned the construction of Qutub Minar dedicated to Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakthiyar Kaki. 
    • Aibak died before the completion of the Minar, which was later completed by Iltutmish.
• Literature: Tajul-Ma’asir (the first history book of the Delhi Sultanate) was written by  Hasan Nizami under his patronage.

2. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD)

• Introduction: He was the slave and son-in-law of Aibak and succeeded him after defeating his son. So he is also called ‘slave of a slave’. He belongs to the Ilbari tribe.
• Military Challenges: Ghzani was occupied by Khwarizmi Shah, who had expanded his empire until the Indus.
• Multan: Qubacha, a slave of Aibak, declared independence.
• Gwalior, Ajmer: Rajputs asserted independence.
• Bihar and Bengal: Ali Mardan Khan declared himself the king.
• Conquests: Iltutmish is considered the real consolidator of Turkish conquests in northern India.
  • Military Campaigns: He aimed to reclaim Gwalior and Bayana and conducted expeditions against Ranthambore, Jalor, and Nagda, attempting to retaliate against the Chalukyas of Gujarat, which saw limited success.
  • The first Mongol Invasion: of India took place in his reign. But he saved India from Mongols (Genghis Khan) by refraining from supporting Khwarizm Jalaluddin, a Central Asian ruler, in his battle against the Mongols. [UPSC 2022, 2021]
  • Consolidation of Borders: He ousted Qubacha from Multan and secured the borders of the Sultanate till the Indus, while Mongols destroyed the Khwarizmi Empire.
• Administration: Shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi.Appointed elite military slaves (Bandagan), imported from centres like Bukhara, Samarqand, and Baghdad, as governors and generals.
  • Chalisa: He formed Chahalgani/Chalisa (council of 40 members) to administer the Sultanate.
  • Introduction of Coins: Introduced copper (Jital) and silver coins (tanka), the two basic coins of the Sultanate period.
  • Completion of Qutb Minar: a colossal victory tower, completed during his reign.
  • Recognition from the Caliphate: Iltutmish was the first sultan to receive a recognition letter from the Caliph.
  • He nominated his daughter, Raziya Sultan, as his successor, which was an unconventional decision at the time.
  • Started the Iqta system in India.
• Iqta System:
  • Origin and Meaning of Iqta: Iqta is an Arabic word and the institution started in Persia (Iran).
  • Role in Caliphate Administration: Used in the Caliphate administration as a way of financing operations and paying civil and military officers. 
  • Revenue Assignments: The rulers made revenue assignments (iqta), in lieu of cash to their nobles (umara). 
  • Responsibilities of Iqta-Holders: The assignees (known as muqti and wali) collected revenue from these areas.
  • Usage of Collected Revenue: The collected revenue was for their own expenses, paying the troops (maintained by them) and sent the surplus (fawazil) to the centre. 
  • Evolution of Hereditary Iqta: It was  non-hereditary and did not imply a right to the land but it became hereditary under Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
  • Transferability of Iqta Assignments: These revenue assignments were transferable, with the iqta-holder being transferred from one region to another every three or four years.

3. Razia Sultan (1236-1240 AD)

• Introduction: Only female Muslim ruler of the Sultanate.
• According to Ibn Battuta, she defied norms by riding horses, being armed, discarding the veil system, wearing male attire, and leading the army in war.
• Conquests and Administration: She sent an expedition against Ranthambore (against the Rajputs).
• • Her efforts to promote a non-Turk to high office faced opposition.
  • Power Struggle: between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs (Chahalgani) started during her reign.
  • Turkish Nobles’ Discontent: The elevation of a slave, Jalal-ud-din Yaqut, to the post of Amir-i-Akhur, Master of the Stables, angered the Turkish nobles.
• Death: She was later assassinated while suppressing a rebellion in southern Punjab.

4. Balban (1266-1287 AD)

• Introduction: The struggle between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs ended when Balban, a Turkish chief (also known as Ulugh Khan), ascended the throne in 1265.
  • He was intolerant of criticism and extremely authoritarian. After consolidating his power, he assumed the title of Zil-e-Ilahi.
• Administration
  • Abolition of Chalisa/Chahalgani: He abolished Chalisa/Chahalgani because of its growing influence in the administration.
  • Enforcement of Ceremonial Practices: He enforced ceremonies like Sijada (prostration) and Paiboss (kissing the monarch’s feet)- symbolising that nobles were not his equals. These two ceremonies were of Iranian origin and considered un-Islamic.
  • Establishment of Spy Network: Maintained an extensive network of spies in the government departments.
  • Commitment to Impartial Justice: He aimed to gain public trust by ensuring impartial justice. Even the highest officials were held accountable.
  • Preference for Turkish Nobility: Balban prioritised Turkish nobility for government roles and excluded Indian Muslims from positions of authority.
• Law and Order: Balban adopted the policy of ‘blood and iron’ to deal with robbers and dacoits on the roads in Awadh and Ganga-Jamuna doab region and suppressing Meos (inhabitants of Mewat region), who plundered the outskirts of Delhi. Military outposts (thanas) were set up around Delhi.

• Settlement of Afghan Soldiers: Colonies of Afghan soldiers were settled in the Doab and Katehar (modern Rohilkhand) to safeguard the roads and handle Rajput zamindars.
• Military Reorganization and Soldier Support: Balban reorganised the military department (Diwan-i-Arz) and provided pensions to soldiers no longer fit for service.
• Centralized Military Administration: Maintained a strong centralised military to deal with Internal and external disturbances (emanating primarily from the Mongols).

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Conclusion

The Slave Dynasty, although brief, left a profound impact on Indian governance and society. From the remarkable architectural contributions of Qutub-ud-din Aibak to the administrative reforms of Iltutmish and the unconventional rule of Razia Sultan, each ruler contributed to the Sultanate’s evolution. Balban’s authoritarian rule and efforts to maintain law and order reflected the challenges of the time, while also laying the groundwork for subsequent dynasties. 

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