The CBI has filed an appeal before the Calcutta HC seeking enhancement of life imprisonment to the death penalty for the convict in the rape and murder of the doctor at the R.G. Kar Medical College and Hospital.

Background of the case

• In August, 2024, female postgraduate trainee doctor was raped and murdered at R.G. Kar Medical College and Hospital in Kolkata.
• A male civic volunteer working for the Kolkata Police was arrested under suspicion of committing the crime.
• The incident has sparked widespread debate on the safety of women and doctors in India and has led to significant outrage.
• Nationwide and international protests have taken place in the wake of this tragic event.

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Recent Judgement about the case

• The Kolkata sessions court has ruled the case as not being “rarest of rare”.
• The court has denied the death penalty to prime accused, despite public outcry and sentenced him for life imprisonment.
• Comments of the Court:
  • The judiciary’s primary responsibility is to uphold the rule of law and ensure justice based on evidence, not public sentiment.
  • It is of prime importance that the court maintain its objectivity and impartiality by focusing solely on the facts and evidence presented during the trial.
  • The court must consider the rights and circumstances of the accused, as well as the broader implications of its decisions.

Capital Punishment

• Capital punishment refers to the process of sentencing convicted offenders to death for the most serious crimes (capital crimes) and carrying out that sentence.
• The specific offenses that determine if a crime is eligible for a death sentence are defined by Law (e.g. IPC/BNS, UAPA, TADA etc).
• Some convicts  who have been awarded the death penalty:
  • Ajmal Kasab (2012): For involvement in the 2008 Mumbai Terror Attacks (26/11).
  • Afzal Guru (2013): He was involved in the 2001 Indian Parliament Attack.
  • Yakub Memon (2015): Involvement in the 1993 Bombay Bombings.
  • Dhananjoy Chatterjee (2004): Murder of the Basu family in Kolkata in 1990.
  • Nirbhaya convicts (2020): Four convicts of the Delhi rape and murder case in 2012.

Extrajudicial killings and difference with Capital Punishment

• Extrajudicial killings, or extrajudicial executions, happen when someone in an official position deliberately kills a person without any legal process.
• Capital Punishment is a legal form of punishment, carried out by the state after a trial and legal proceedings.
• Extrajudicial Killings are illegal murders, usually committed by authorities without a trial or legal process.

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Doctrine of “Rarest of the Rare”

• The doctrine of “rarest of the rare” emerged from the landmark judgment in Bachan Singh vs. State of Punjab (1980). 
• The Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity of the death penalty but ruled that it should only be imposed in the “rarest of the rare” cases.
• Key Highlights of the Doctrine:
  • The doctrine established that sentencing should consider not just the crime but also the circumstances of the offender.
  • It ensures that the punishment is proportionate to the crime.
• Subsequent Developments:
  • The “rarest of the rare” doctrine has been further clarified in cases like Machhi Singh vs. State of Punjab (1983), which outlined aggravating and mitigating factors.
  • The courts have evolved the principle to avoid arbitrary or biased use of the death penalty.

Ethical Considerations in Awarding the Death Penalty

• Philosophical Debate:
  • Retributive justice vs. reformative justice: The death penalty often poses a moral dilemma about whether punishment should focus on retribution or rehabilitation.
  • Ethical question of taking a life: The judiciary must grapple with whether the state has the moral right to extinguish life.
• Consideration of Circumstances:
  • The offender’s background, mental state, and possibility of reform are crucial ethical factors.
  • Balancing the rights of the accused and the demands of justice for victims.
• Role of Judiciary in Upholding Ethics:
  • The judiciary must avoid bias, ensure due process, and act as the guardian of constitutional morality.
  • Sentences must not be influenced by populism or political pressures.

Issues with the application of  “rarest of the rare” Doctrine

• Subjectivity in Interpretation:
  • What qualifies as “rarest of the rare” is often subjective and varies from judge to judge.
  • Lack of uniformity in judgments leads to inconsistent application of the doctrine.
• Delays in Execution:
  • Prolonged delays in carrying out death sentences raise questions about the fairness of justice.
  • Long incarceration on death row has been criticized as a form of psychological torture.
• Impact of Public and Political Pressure:
  • Cases with high public attention or political significance often lead to moral dilemmas in sentencing.
  • Populist sentiments may influence the impartial application of the doctrine.
• Case Studies:
  • Nirbhaya Gang Rape Case (2012): While the death penalty was imposed, the delay in execution led to debates about its deterrent value.
  • Dhananjoy Chatterjee Case (2004): Critics argued that societal outrage influenced the death sentence, raising concerns about judicial independence.

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Arguments in Support of the Death Penalty

• Justice for Victims: The death penalty is seen as fair retribution for those who commit the most heinous crimes, giving justice to the victims and their families.
• Forfeiture of the Right to Life: Individuals who commit murder forfeit their right to life, as they have taken someone else’s life.
• Retribution and Moral Indignation: Capital punishment is seen as a just form of retribution, expressing and reinforcing society’s moral outrage, not only for the victim’s family but also for law-abiding citizens.
• Reinforces the Rule of Law: Punishing the worst crimes with the harshest penalties shows that society takes law and justice seriously.

Arguments Against the Death Penalty

• Disproportionate Punishment: When used for lesser crimes, the death penalty is deemed immoral as it is disproportionate to the harm caused.
• Violation of Human Rights: Everyone has a right to life. Taking a person’s life through the death penalty is seen as cruel, inhuman, and degrading.
• Irreversible Mistakes: If someone is wrongly convicted and executed, the mistake cannot be undone, leading to permanent injustice.
• Promotes Revenge, Not Justice: Punishment should focus on reform and rehabilitation, not revenge. The death penalty prioritizes revenge over the chance to change lives.

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Challenges in Maintaining Judicial Ethics

• Influence of Political and Societal Pressures on Sentencing: 
  • Public Opinion and Populism: In high-profile cases, public outrage or demands for harsh punishment can unduly influence judicial decisions.
  • Political Interference: The judiciary, though independent, is occasionally pressured by political forces to deliver judgments favorable to the ruling government or influential groups. 
  • Media Trial and Sensationalism: Media coverage often creates a parallel trial outside the courtroom, putting undue pressure on judges.
• Misuse of Judicial Discretion: 
  • Subjectivity in Sentencing: Judicial discretion, while essential, can lead to inconsistent and arbitrary sentencing when judges fail to adhere to established principles or guidelines.
  • Ethical Dilemmas: Judges often face moral conflicts, such as balancing the need for justice with considerations of compassion or mercy.
• Lack of Uniform Sentencing Guidelines: India lacks a comprehensive, structured sentencing policy, leading to discrepancies in punishment for similar crimes.
  • Variations in awarding life imprisonment versus the death penalty in heinous crimes.

Way Forward for Addressing Capital Punishment and Judicial Ethics Issues

• Clear Legal Guidelines: Establish comprehensive legal frameworks for awarding the death penalty, ensuring that it is only imposed in the “rarest of rare” cases, as outlined in the Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab case.
• Reducing Political Influence: Strengthen safeguards for judicial independence, ensuring that judges are not influenced by political pressure, populism, or media trials. 
  • A judicial accountability law could be considered to prevent external interference.
• Public Awareness and Education: Promote public understanding of judicial processes, ensuring that decisions are not swayed by sensational media coverage or populist sentiments.
• Training for Judges: Provide training programs for judges on the ethical and practical challenges in sentencing, particularly in complex cases involving capital punishment.
  • Training should help judges understand the psychological and societal dimensions of crime and punishment.
• Strengthening Accountability Mechanisms within the Judiciary: 
  • Transparent Decision-Making: Mandating detailed reasoning for judgments to ensure fairness and build public trust.
  • Role of Higher Judiciary: Appellate courts should review and address inconsistencies in lower court sentencing, promoting uniformity and adherence to ethical standards.
• Considering the Abolition of the Death Penalty: The 262nd Law Commission of India report on death penalty has recommended the abolition of death penalty for all offences except those related to terrorism. 
• Public Debate on the Death Penalty: Encourage a national conversation on the ethical, social, and legal implications of the death penalty.
• Focus on Rehabilitation: Shift the focus of the criminal justice system towards rehabilitation and restorative justice, rather than punitive measures like the death penalty. 
  • This can include better facilities and programs for convicted criminals to rehabilitate and reintegrate into society.
• Gradual Abolition: Introduce a phased process towards the abolition of the death penalty by first limiting its scope to only the most extreme cases.

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US President Trump initiated the U.S. withdrawal from the WHO, accusing it of mishandling the COVID-19 pandemic and favoring China.

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Executive Order on U.S. Withdrawal from WHO

• Termination of Membership: The order formally initiates the process for the United States to withdraw from the World Health Organization (WHO) within 12 months, in accordance with the rules governing WHO membership.
• Ceasing Financial Contributions: All U.S. financial contributions to WHO, including assessed and voluntary funding, will stop immediately.
• Reallocation of Resources: Funds previously allocated to WHO will be redirected to other international and domestic health initiatives that align with U.S. priorities.
• Exit from Pandemic Treaty Negotiations: The US will cease its participation in negotiations for the WHO’s pandemic treaty.
  • The executive order explicitly states that any actions under this treaty will not bind the US.
• Call for Reform: The order emphasizes the need for reforms within WHO to improve transparency, accountability, and equitable burden-sharing among member nations.

Reasons for U.S. Withdrawal from WHO

• Alleged Mishandling of COVID-19: The U.S. accused WHO of delayed response and inadequate measures in the early stages of the pandemic.
  • WHO declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on January 30, 2020, but faced criticism for relying on incomplete information from China.
• Perceived Bias Towards China: Trump administration alleged that WHO favored China, undermining its impartiality.
  • WHO praised China’s transparency, despite concerns about suppressed early reports of human-to-human transmission.
  • China’s assessed contribution to WHO was 15% (~$87.6M), significantly less than the U.S., raising questions about WHO’s political motivations​.
• Failure to Adopt Reforms: U.S. criticized WHO for resisting structural reforms to improve governance and accountability.

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• • WHO faced scrutiny for insufficient funding diversification, with only ~20% of its budget coming from assessed contributions and overdependence on voluntary funding (~80%).
• Financial Burden on the U.S.: The Trump administration viewed U.S. contributions as disproportionately high compared to other nations.
  • The U.S. accounted for 22.5% of assessed contributions ($138M) and 13% of voluntary contributions ($356M in 2023), while China’s voluntary contribution was just 0.14% ($3.9M), amplifying U.S. concerns about inequitable burden-sharing​.
• Insufficient Accountability: The U.S. accused WHO of lacking transparency and accountability in its decision-making processes.
  • Criticism over WHO’s delayed investigation into the origins of COVID-19 in China fueled mistrust.
  • Calls for independent audits and reforms in WHO’s response protocols have grown post-pandemic.
• Political Motivations and Domestic Agenda: Withdrawal aligned with Trump’s “America First” policy, appealing to domestic audiences critical of international organizations.
  • The move mirrored prior U.S. withdrawals from multilateral agreements like the Paris Climate Accord and the Trans-Pacific Partnership.

WHO’s Role in Global Health

• Disease Prevention and Control: Leads global efforts to eradicate infectious diseases like polio and smallpox.
  • Provides technical support for disease prevention and management of non-communicable diseases (NCDs).
  • WHO’s Global Malaria Programme reduced malaria mortality by 60% between 2000 and 2015.
• Pandemic Preparedness and Response:Coordinates global responses to health emergencies and pandemics.
  • Provides guidelines, training, and resources for outbreak containment.
  • WHO declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in January 2020, mobilizing resources globally.
• Health Equity and Access: Promotes equitable access to vaccines, medicines, and healthcare services, especially in low-income countries.
  • Manages global initiatives like COVAX for vaccine distribution.
  • WHO’s Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) improved vaccination coverage worldwide.
• Health Policy and Guidelines: Develops international health guidelines and standards.
  • Provides evidence-based recommendations for healthcare interventions.
  • WHO’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) has influenced global anti-tobacco policies.
• Building Health Systems: Supports countries in strengthening healthcare infrastructure and workforce capacity.
  • Assists in establishing universal health coverage (UHC).
  • WHO collaborates with governments to implement primary healthcare systems in underserved regions.
• Data Collection and Research: Monitors global health trends and compiles data on diseases, mortality, and healthcare access.
  • Funds and supports global health research.
  • WHO’s World Health Statistics provides crucial health data for policymaking.
• Advocacy for Global Health Priorities: Advocates for funding and political commitment towards health initiatives.
  • Raises awareness about emerging global health threats.
  • WHO’s campaigns on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) have mobilized international action.

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Challenges Faced by WHO in Funding

• Overdependence on Voluntary Contributions: Around 80% of WHO’s funding comes from voluntary contributions, often earmarked for specific projects.
  • Reduces flexibility for WHO to allocate resources to urgent or emerging health crises.
• Stagnation of Assessed Contributions: Assessed contributions, which are mandatory and provide stable funding, have remained unchanged for decades.
  • These now cover less than 20% of WHO’s budget, limiting its core operational capacity.
• Disproportionate Burden on Major Donors: A few countries (e.g., U.S. contributes 22.5%) and organizations (e.g., Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) burdens the majority of funding.
  • Withdrawal or reduced contributions by major donors, like the U.S., create significant financial shortfalls.
• Dependence on Philanthropic Organizations: Heavy reliance on private entities for funding raises concerns about influence and priority-setting.
  • Private donors may focus on specific agendas, potentially sidelining comprehensive global health needs.
• Unpredictability of Voluntary Contributions: Voluntary funding varies annually and is influenced by geopolitical and economic conditions.
  • In 2024, WHO secured only 53% of its required $7.1 billion budget for 2025-28 programs.
• Limited Contributions from Emerging Economies: Emerging economies contribute minimally to WHO’s budget despite their growing global influence.
  • This creates an overreliance on developed nations and limits the financial diversity needed for stability.
  • China’s voluntary contribution in 2023 was only $3.9M (0.14% of voluntary funds), despite being the world’s second-largest economy.

Impact of US withdrawal from WHO

Impact on WHO

• Funding Shortfall: The U.S. contributed 22.5% of assessed contributions ($138M) and 13% of voluntary contributions ($356M in 2023), amounting to ~20% of WHO’s budget.
  • The loss of funding threatens global health initiatives like HIV/AIDS programs, vaccine distribution, and disease eradication.
• Program Disruption: Major health programs, including those for tuberculosis, polio, and malaria, face potential delays or halts.
  • WHO’s ability to address emergencies, such as pandemics, is severely constrained.
• Weakened Leadership: U.S. expertise, including contributions from agencies like the CDC, is critical for technical guidance and health policy frameworks.
  • Potential increase in reliance on other nations, such as China, for leadership and funding.

Impact on Global Health

• Pandemic Preparedness and Response: Reduced resources and expertise weaken WHO’s ability to coordinate global responses to health emergencies.
  • Delayed responses to new pandemics or outbreaks could lead to higher mortality and economic losses globally.
• Erosion of Multilateralism: U.S. withdrawal undermines collective global action and fosters geopolitical divisions in health governance.
  • Increased dependence on voluntary contributions from private organizations and smaller nations creates instability.
• Equity Challenges: WHO’s initiatives for equitable access to vaccines and medicines, especially in low-income countries, are at risk.
  • Programs like COVAX may suffer reduced funding, hindering vaccine distribution in developing nations.

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Impact on India

• Disruption of Health Programs: WHO-supported initiatives in India, including immunization campaigns, antimicrobial resistance programs, and vector-borne disease control, may face funding gaps.
• Reduced Technical Support: WHO’s guidance in managing public health challenges, such as non-communicable diseases and pandemics, could weaken.
• Increased Regional Leadership: India may need to step up as a regional health leader to fill the void left by the U.S., increasing its funding and policy contributions to WHO.
• Global Vaccine Supply: As a major vaccine producer, India could face challenges in coordinating global vaccine programs due to WHO’s resource constraints.

India’s Role in Strengthening WHO and Global Health

• Leadership in Global Health Governance: India can leverage its position in the Global South to advocate for reforms in WHO, ensuring equitable representation and decision-making.
  • Utilize platforms like G20, BRICS, and NAM to push for more inclusive global health policies.
• Increased Financial Contributions: India can enhance its assessed and voluntary contributions to WHO to fill funding gaps.
  • Gradually increase its financial support, showcasing commitment to global health security.
• Regional Health Leadership: India can lead regional collaborations in South Asia to strengthen health systems and tackle transboundary health issues.
  • Initiatives under SAARC or BIMSTEC for coordinated responses to pandemics and disease control.
• Vaccine Diplomacy: As a major vaccine producer, India can strengthen WHO-supported programs like COVAX by supplying affordable vaccines to low-income countries.
  • Expand initiatives like Vaccine Maitri, providing vaccines to nations in need.
• Capacity Building in Developing Nations: Share expertise and resources to strengthen health systems in low- and middle-income countries.
  • Offer training programs for healthcare professionals through partnerships with WHO.

Way Forward for Addressing WHO’s Funding Impacts and Challenges

• Increase Assessed Contributions: Member states should agree to raise mandatory assessed contributions to reduce dependence on voluntary funding.
  • Revising the contribution formula to reflect current global economic realities can ensure more stable funding.
• Diversify Funding Sources: WHO should explore partnerships with regional organizations, private sector entities, and non-traditional donors.
  • Example: Engage emerging economies like India and Brazil to increase their contributions.
• Establish Emergency Reserve Funds: Create dedicated emergency funds to address global health crises without diverting resources from existing programs.
  • Similar to the Contingency Fund for Emergencies (CFE), expand reserves with multi-stakeholder contributions.
• Promote Accountability and Transparency: Strengthen reporting mechanisms for donors to ensure funds are used efficiently.
  • Publish detailed annual financial reports and impact assessments for all contributions.
• Engage Philanthropic and Private Sector Partners: Balance partnerships with private organizations to address specific health challenges while maintaining WHO’s independence.
  • Expand collaborations with global health initiatives like Gavi and the Global Fund.
• Regional Self-Reliance: Encourage regional collaboration to fund localized health programs.
  • African Union or ASEAN-led initiatives for regional health crises.
  • Reduces WHO’s financial burden while building regional health capacities.
• Advocate for Multilateral Health Funding: Mobilize international advocacy for increased global investments in health security.
  • Encourage nations to view health funding as critical to global security and economic stability.
  • Secures long-term financial commitments from member states and private sectors.

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Conclusion

The U.S. withdrawal from WHO poses significant challenges to global health governance, funding, and equity. Addressing these impacts requires increased financial contributions, greater regional collaboration, and reforms to strengthen WHO’s transparency and resilience, ensuring its ability to safeguard global health security.

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The Union Cabinet has been apprised of the Progress under the National Health Mission (NHM)

Key Achievement of NHM

• Increase in Healthcare Sector Workers: The doctor-to-patient ratio in India has increased to 1:836, which is better than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) standard of 1:1,000. 
  • NHM facilitated the engagement of 2.69 lakh additional healthcare workers in FY 2021-22 which has increased to 5.23 lakh workers in FY 2023-24, improving healthcare delivery, especially at the grassroots level.
• COVID Response: The India COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health Systems Preparedness Package (ECRP) was implemented under NHM in two phases bolstering the healthcare system to effectively manage the pandemic.
  • NHM was pivotal in administering over 220 crore COVID-19 vaccine doses between January 2021 and March 2024.

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• Progress in Key Health Indicator: India is on track to meet its SDG targets for maternal, child, and infant mortality well ahead of 2030.
  • The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) has declined, marking a 25% reduction from 130 per lakh live births in 2014-16 to 97 per lakh in 2018-20
  • The Under-5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) has decreased from 45 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 32 in 2020 demonstrating a reduction  of 75%
  • The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) has fallen from 39 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 28 in 2020. 
  • The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) decreased from 2.3 in 2015 to 2.0 in 2020, as per the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5). 
• Elimination and Control of Diseases: 
  • The National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP): The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) has reduced from 237 per 1,00,000 population in 2015 to 195 in 2023, with a decrease in mortality rate from 28 to 22. 
  • Malaria:  In the year 2023, malaria surveillance and cases have increased by 8.34% and 28.91% respectively as compared to 2022, whereas malaria deaths have decreased by 7.77% as compared to 2021.
  • Kala-Azar: Elimination efforts have been successful, with 100% of endemic blocks achieving the target of less than one case per 10,000 population by the end of 2023. 
  • The Measles-Rubella Elimination Campaign: Under the Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI) 5.0, vaccinated over 34.77 crore children, achieving a 97.98% coverage
  • Tobacco Use: Through sustained public awareness campaigns and enforcement of tobacco control laws, NHM has contributed to a 17.3% reduction in tobacco use over the past decade. 
• Progress in Specialized Health Initiatives: 
  • The Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan: It saw a registration of 1,56,572 lakh Ni-kshay Mitra volunteers who are supporting over 9.40 lakh TB patients. 
  • The Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Programme (PMNDP): It has been expanded, with over 62.35 lakh hemodialysis sessions benefiting over 4.53 lakh dialysis patients. 
  • The National Sickle Cell Anemia Elimination Mission: It has screened over 2.61 crore individuals in tribal areas, working toward the goal of eliminating sickle cell disease by 2047.
  • U-WIN Platform: The platform ensures the timely administration of vaccines to pregnant women, infants, and children across India  has expanded to 65 districts across 36 States/UTs, ensuring real-time vaccination tracking and improving immunization coverage.
  • The National Action Plan for Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE) was launched in FY 2022 with efforts focused on prevention, education, and management of snakebites
• Strengthening Healthcare Infrastructure: 
  • National Quality Assurance Standards (NQAS): As of March 2024, 7,998 public health facilities have been certified, with over 4,200 of them receiving national certification
  • Ayushman Arogya Mandir (AAM) centers: The centers offering 12 key healthcare services has increased to 1,72,148 by the end of FY 2023-24
  • Improving Emergency Services: It has established 24×7 Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and First Referral Units (FRUs). 
    • By March 2024, 12,348 PHCs had been converted to 24×7 services, and 3,133 FRUs were operational across the country. 
  • To ensure healthcare access in remote and underserved areas, the fleet of mobile medical units (MMUs) has expanded, with 1,424 MMUs now operating.
    • The introduction of the MMU Portal in 2023 further strengthened monitoring and data collection on health indicators for vulnerable tribal groups.

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Actor Saif Ali Khan has been directed to approach the appellate authority by the Madhya Pradesh High Court, regarding the central government’s declaration of the Pataudi family’s historical properties in Bhopal as “enemy property.”

Background about Saif Ali Khan Enemy Property Case

• Properties: The disputed properties all located in Bhopal worth approximately 15000 crores includes,
  • The Flag Staff House, the luxurious Noor-Us-Sabah Palace hotel, Dar-Us-Salam, the Bungalow of Habibi, Ahmedabad Palace, and the Kohefiza Property.
• Basis: The migration of Abida Sultan (eldest daughter of Bhopal’s then ruler,  Nawab Hamidullah Khan) to Pakistan in 1950 became the focus of the government’s claim to the properties as “enemy property”.
  • Saif Ali Khan is the Great Grandson of Sajida Sultan (second daughter of Nawab Hamidullah Khan) who married Nawab Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi.
    • Saif Ali Khan is thus an heir to the properties in Bhopal. 
• Legal Contest: 
  • 2014: The Custodian of Enemy Property Department declared the Pataudi family’s properties in Bhopal as enemy assets. 
    • Saif Ali Khan contested this notice, asserting his legal rights to the properties in the  Madhya Pradesh High Court. 
  • 2016: The Indian government issued an Ordinance explicitly stating that heirs would not have rights to enemy properties.
  • Recently the Central government has informed the court about the creation of an appellate authority to resolve disputes related to enemy properties.
  • The MP High Court therefore advised Saif Ali Khan to approach the newly established appellate authority for further adjudication. 

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About The Enemy Property

• The Enemy Property Act 1968  defines enemy property as,  “The property for the time being belonging to or held or managed on behalf of an enemy, an enemy subject or an enemy firm”
  • It refers to the assets (movable and immovable) left behind in India by individuals who migrated to countries designated as “enemy nations” during times of conflict.
• Definition of Enemy: The 1968 Act defined an ‘enemy’ as a country (and its citizens) that committed external aggression against India (i.e., Pakistan and China).
  • The central government had designated some properties belonging to nationals of Pakistan and China as ‘enemy properties’ during the 1962, 1965 and 1971 conflicts. 
  • The 1966 Tashkent Declaration: It was conducted between India and Pakistan and  included discussions about the return of such properties, but Pakistan disposed of these properties in 1971.
• Formulated Under: The Act is  formulated under the Defence of India Act, 1962.
• Authority: The properties are vested by the central government by appointing a ‘Custodian of Enemy Property for India’ under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
  • The custodian is tasked with managing these assets on behalf of the Indian government.
• Enemy Properties In India: As per Government reply in Lok Sabha, a total 9,280 enemy properties had been left behind by Pakistani nationals, and 126 by Chinese nationals worth about Rs 1 lakh crore.
  • Enemy shares: The Union Cabinet has also approved the procedure to sell enemy shares worth more than Rs 3,000 crore. A total of 6,50,75,877 shares of 996 companies belonging to 20,232 shareholders were identified.
• Inheritance: Under the Act, The properties that are declared as enemy assets remain permanently vested with the Custodian of Enemy Property, with no room for inheritance or transfer.
• The Enemy Property (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2017: The amendments broadened the definition of “enemy subject” and “enemy firm”
  • Enemy Subject: 
    • They now include legal heirs of enemies even if they are citizens of India or of another country which is not an enemy
    • The nationals of an enemy country who subsequently changed their nationality to that of another country, etc.
  • Enemy Firm: Enemy property would remain with the Custodian even in cases where the enemy subject or firm ceased to exist due to death, extinction, or business closure irrespective of whether the legal heir was an Indian citizen or a national of a non-enemy country.
• Disposal of Enemy Properties:
  • The Enemy Property Disposal Committee, comprising senior government officials, provides recommendations on whether to sell, transfer, or maintain the properties.
  • The Guidelines for the Disposal of Enemy Property, 2018: It outlines the procedure for the sale of properties vested in the Custodian of Enemy Property for India.
  • Proceeds: The proceeds from the sales are deposited into the Consolidated Fund of India.

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The Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission, launched the inaugural issue of NITI Aayog’s report titled “Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025” in New Delhi recently.

About Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025

• It is the first report of its kind and released in January 2025  by NITI Aayog.
• Aim: To evolve an understanding of the fiscal health of states in India.
• Coverage: It covers eighteen major states that drive the Indian economy in terms of their contribution to India’s GDP, demography, total public expenditure, revenues, and overall fiscal stability.
  • Covers the financial year 2022-23 and assesses states on their contribution to India’s GDP, demography, public expenditure, revenues, and fiscal stability.
• Source used: The report uses data sourced from the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) to calculate the Fiscal Health Index.
• The FHI offers a systematic approach to assess the state’s fiscal health, identify areas for improvement, and promote best practices across states
• Evaluation Parameters: The FHI is based on five key indicators:
  • Expenditure Quality: Efficiency and focus on developmental spending.
  • Revenue Mobilisation: Tax and non-tax revenue generation capacity.
  • Fiscal Prudence: Ability to manage deficits.
  • Debt Index: Debt levels relative to revenue.
  • Debt Sustainability: Capacity to maintain debt levels without fiscal stress.

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Key findings from the Report

• State Categories
  • Achievers (Top Performers): Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Goa, and Jharkhand are categorized as top-performing states.
    • These states have a higher capital outlay of up to 4% of Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP).
    • They are revenue surplus states with low fiscal deficits.
    • They have low interest payments, which account for up to 7% of revenue receipts.
  • Front-Runners: Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka are classified as front-runners.
    • These states have high developmental expenditure of up to 73%.
    • They demonstrate consistent growth in their own tax revenue.
    • They show balanced fiscal management and improved debt sustainability with a debt-to-GSDP ratio of 24%.
  • Performers: Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Haryana are placed in the performers’ category.
  • Aspirational States (Worst Performers): Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Kerala are categorized as aspirational states.
    • These states face significant fiscal challenges, including high fiscal deficits.
    • They exhibit low revenue mobilisation and an increasing debt burden, raising concerns about debt sustainability.
    • Kerala and Punjab struggle with low-quality expenditure and debt sustainability.
    • West Bengal faces challenges with revenue mobilisation and debt index management.
    • Andhra Pradesh has been identified as having a high fiscal deficit.

• Top-Performing State: Odisha
  • Best-performing state, with the highest overall index score of 67.8.
  • Ranks highest in the debt index with a score of 99.0 and also leads in debt sustainability with a score of 64.0.
  • Maintained low fiscal deficits and a strong debt profile.
  • Above-average capital outlay-to-GSDP ratio and demonstrates effective mobilisation of non-tax revenue.
• Challenges for Southern States
  • Telangana has emerged as the best performer among the southern states due to its strong revenue mobilisation and fiscal prudence.
  • Tamil Nadu faces challenges with high committed expenditure, which accounts for 52% of its revenue expenditure. 
    • This trend, which has been growing at an annual rate of 9.9% since 2018-19, has reduced the state’s flexibility for developmental spending.
  • Kerala struggles with low-quality expenditure and weak debt sustainability.
  • Andhra Pradesh faces challenges with a high fiscal deficit, making it one of the worst-performing states.

Significance of FHI

• Comprehensive Fiscal Assessment: The FHI will provide valuable, data-driven insights into the fiscal health of Indian states, aiding policymakers in informed decision-making and fostering economic stability across the country.
• Informed Decision-Making: It offers data-driven insights that help policymakers make better decisions, guiding states toward fiscal reforms and better governance.
• Promotes Fiscal Prudence & Sustainable Growth: By highlighting areas of improvement, the FHI encourages states to adopt sound financial practices, ensuring sustainable economic growth and fiscal discipline.
• Fosters Healthy Competition & Cooperative Federalism: The FHI’s rankings inspire states to improve their fiscal health while promoting collaboration between the Centre and states to address regional disparities and drive holistic development.

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About NITI Aayog

• NITI Aayog is a government think-tank that was formed via a resolution of the Union Cabinet, replacing the erstwhile Planning Commission.
• Establishment: The Planning Commission, which was established in 1950, was replaced by NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) on January 1, 2015.
• Composition
  • Chairperson: The Prime Minister.
  • Vice-Chairperson: Appointed by the Prime Minister.
  • Governing Council: Composed of the Chief Ministers of all states and Lt. Governors of Union Territories.
  • Regional Council: Composed of Chief Ministers and Lt. Governors, chaired by the Prime Minister or his nominee.
  • Part-time Members: A maximum of two members from leading universities, research organizations, and other relevant institutions, serving on a rotational basis.
  • Ex-Officio Members: A maximum of four members from the Union Council of Ministers, nominated by the Prime Minister.
  • Chief Executive Officer: Appointed by the Prime Minister for a fixed tenure, with the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
  • Special Invitees: Experts and specialists with domain knowledge, nominated by the Prime Minister.
• Role: NITI Aayog provides critical directional and strategic input into the development process.
• Founding Principle: NITI Aayog is based on the principle of Cooperative Federalism, with an emphasis on a ‘Bottom-Up’ approach.
• NITI Aayog Hubs
  • Team India Hub: Acts as an interface between the States and the Centre.
  • Knowledge and Innovation Hub: Builds the think-tank acumen of NITI Aayog.

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Recent studies have pushed back the timeline of the Iron Age in India, revealing that iron use in Tamil Nadu dates as early as 3345 BCE, making it the earliest known use of iron globally. 

• For decades, the origins of the Iron Agewere largely centered around regions such as Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Indus Valley, with timelines often placed between the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE.

Key Findings

• Study Report: ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu’ 
• Scientific methods: The findings are supported by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) analyses conducted on samples from archaeological sites.4
• Dating and Sites:
  • Sivagalai: Evidence of iron dating from 2953–3345 BCE, with a paddy sample dated to 1155 BCE.
  • Mayiladumparai: Iron artifacts dated to 2172 BCE, surpassing previous benchmarks for the region.
  • Kilnamandi: A sarcophagus burial dated to 1692 BCE, marking the earliest of its kind in Tamil Nadu.
• Technological Advances:
  • Iron Smelting: Advanced furnaces were found at Kodumanal, Chettipalayam, and Perungalur, with Kodumanal’s furnaces reaching 1,300°C, enough for sponge iron production.
  • Hypothesis: Northern India’s Copper Age and southern India’s Iron Age may have been contemporaneous due to the scarcity of copper in the south.
• Rewriting History: The Tamil Nadu findings challenge the traditionally accepted Iron Age timeline, previously attributed to the Hittite Empire (1300 BCE). 
  • Ironwork first began in Turkey before spreading to other European countries

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Phases of the Iron Age in India

• Early Iron Age (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE):
  • Introduction of iron tools for agriculture and hunting (e.g., Hallur, Karnataka).
  • Overlaps with the late Vedic period (texts like the Atharvaveda).
  • Key Sites: Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh), Malhar (Chhattisgarh), etc.
• Middle Iron Age (1000 BCE – 600 BCE):
  • Expansion of iron technology and urbanization.
  • Emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture in the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
  • Fortified settlements like Kausambi and the rise of Janapadas.
  • Key Sites: Kausambi (Uttar Pradesh), Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh)
• Late Iron Age (600 BCE – 200 BCE):
  • Formation of Mahajanapadas and the Mauryan Empire.
  • Spread of Buddhism and Jainism; Ashoka’s ethical edicts.
  • Key Urban Centres: Pataliputra (Patna), Ujjain.

Key Features of the Iron Age

• Iron Technology: Advanced smelting techniques for durable tools and weapons.
• Agricultural Revolution: Use of iron ploughs and sickles led to surplus food production.
• Urbanization: Development of fortified cities with drainage systems and public buildings.
• Political Structures: Emergence of Janapadas, Mahajanapadas, and the dominance of the Mauryan Empire.
• Cultural Growth: Composition of texts like the Upanishads and the rise of Buddhist and Jain philosophies and art.

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In a significant step toward advancing India’s scientific capabilities and bolstering the blue economy, the Union Minister of State for Science and Technology announced that the country is set to launch its first human underwater submersible (Deep-Sea Manned Vehicle) this year.

About Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

• DOM is India’s ambitious program for underwater exploration, primarily implemented by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
• It is a mission mode project to support the Blue Economy Initiatives of the Government of India.
• Approved by the Union Cabinet in 2021, it has a budget of nearly ₹4,077 crore over a five-year phased implementation.
• Mission pillars: 
  • Technology Development: Includes developing technologies for deep-sea mining and a manned submersible capable of reaching a depth of 6,000 meters in the ocean, with a focus on mining polymetallic nodules.
  • Ocean Climate Change Advisory Services: Involves ocean observations and models for understanding and projecting future climate changes.
  • Biodiversity Conservation: Aims at developing technological innovations for the exploration and conservation of deep-sea biodiversity.
  • Deep-Ocean Survey and Exploration: Focuses on identifying potential sites of multi-metal hydrothermal sulphides mineralization along the Indian Ocean mid-oceanic ridges.
  • Energy and Freshwater from the Ocean: Aims to harness energy and freshwater resources from the ocean.
  • Marine Station for Ocean Biology: Establishing an advanced Marine Station for Ocean Biology to promote talent and opportunities in ocean biology and blue biotechnology.

Major Advancements in India’s Ocean Exploration

• Samudrayaan Mission: India’s first mission to explore the deep ocean using the Matsya 6000 submersible.
  • Aims to reach a depth of 6,000 meters in the Central Indian Ocean.
• Varaha Deep-Ocean Mining System: Developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
  • Successfully completed locomotion trials at a depth of 5,270 meters in the Central Indian Ocean.
  • A significant advancement in India’s capacity for deep-ocean mining.

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Matsya 6000 Submersible

• Matsya6000 is India’s flagship deep-ocean submersible designed to reach a depth of 6,000 meters.
• Crew: Accommodates a crew of three members and is equipped with scientific sensors and tools for observations, sample collection, and experimentation.
• Developed by: Chennai’s National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
  • Constructed from a titanium alloy, the sphere is engineered to withstand pressures of up to 6,000 bar.
• Features: It is designed to withstand high pressures and has propellers for movement in all directions, viewports for crew observation, and communication through acoustic systems.
  • Matsya6000 combines features of remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous remote vehicles (AUVs).
• India aims to join other countries that have successfully conducted deep-ocean crewed missions, such as the USA, Russia, China, France, and Japan.

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Nearly a week since Donald Trump assumed office as the 47th President of the US, and declared a national energy emergency while promising to increase oil production in America, Brent crude oil prices have softened by around 3 per cent.

Current Situation

• Brent crude prices fell from $80.79 (17th Jan) to $78.26 per barrel (24th Jan).
• A decline attributed to weaker demand and anticipated geopolitical stability.

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Key Drivers of Easing Prices

• Geopolitical Stability Expectations: Anticipation of a resolution to the Ukraine-Russia conflict has reduced the geopolitical risk premium on crude oil prices.
• US Energy Policies: The US administration’s focus on maximizing domestic oil production, as declared under the national energy emergency, has increased the potential supply of crude oil in global markets.
• Sanctions on Russia: Fresh sanctions on Russia’s oil trade have caused short-term disruptions but have also led to an expectation of realignment in global oil supplies, reducing speculative price spikes.
• Weak Global Demand: Slowing economic growth in major economies like China has dampened global oil demand, contributing to the downward trend in crude oil prices.

Implications for India

• Economic Impact: 
  • Reduced Import Costs: Lower crude prices will ease India’s oil import bill.
  • Narrowed Current Account Deficit (CAD): A decline in crude prices helps improve trade balance.
• Inflation Control: Oil serves as a raw material for multiple industries; cheaper crude reduces input costs, easing inflation.
• Growth Acceleration: Lower production costs for industries lead to higher GDP growth potential.
• Geopolitical Factors: India’s refiners face supply issues due to US sanctions on Russian oil, compelling a shift toward West Asian suppliers.

Way forward

• US Policy: Increased oil production in the US will boost global supply.
  • Focus on filling strategic reserves and exporting American energy worldwide.
• Global Demand Dynamics: A slowdown in China’s economy may further suppress global oil demand.
• Sanctions and Supply Disruption: Sanctions on Russia could challenge India’s sourcing, necessitating diversification.
• Price Outlook: Analysts predict a continued softening trend, though short-term volatility is expected.

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Conclusion

Easing crude oil prices offer significant economic advantages for India, including improved fiscal health, inflation control, and boosted growth. However, geopolitical challenges and market dynamics will require careful policy responses.

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The Supreme Court ruled that partners of unregistered firms cannot enforce contractual rights against each other, as per Section 69(1) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

About Indian Partnership Act, 1932

• Comprehensive Law on Partnerships
  • The Act provides detailed guidelines on the formation, rights, and dissolution of partnerships.
  • It draws inspiration from the English Partnership Act, 1890.
• Applicability
  • Applicable to the entire country of India.
  • Covers all types of partnerships, except those formed for charitable purposes.
• Key Provisions of the Act
• • Specifies the mutual rights and duties of partners.
  • Includes provisions for:
    • Registration of firms.
    • Dissolution of the firm.
    • Settlement of disputes among partners.
  • Addresses the rights and liabilities of minor partners.
• Importance of the Partnership Deed
  • The partnership deed is a vital document outlining the rights and obligations of partners within the firm.

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About Partnership

• A partnership involves two or more individuals working together to run a business with the goal of earning and sharing profits.
• Partners pool their capital resources and share responsibilities to operate the business..
• Co-ownership of property does not qualify as a partnership.
• Number of Partners
  • Minimum: Two partners are required to form a partnership.
  • Maximum:
    • No limit under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

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7 new members in Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP)

Context:  The World Economic Forum’s initiative, GPAP, has included Seven new countries—Angola, Bangladesh, Gabon, Guatemala, Kenya, Senegal, and Tanzania—in the partnership.

About Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP)

• GPAP is a platform by the World Economic Forum to turn commitments on plastic pollution into real action.
• Launch: Officially launched in September 2018 at the Sustainable Development Impact Summit.
• Goal: Accelerate global efforts to address the growing plastic pollution crisis.
• Collaboration: Brings together governments, businesses, and civil society to act at national and global levels.
• GPAP focuses on creating a circular plastics economy, where plastic is reused, recycled, and managed more sustainably.
• The initiative also contributes to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
  • as plastic production and waste management account for a significant portion of global emissions, including potent methane gases from landfills
• Significance of GPAP’s Expansion
  • Global Impact: The partnership’s growth strengthens the fight against plastic pollution.
  • Sustainability and Growth: Encourages a circular economy, equitable growth, and environmental resilience.

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Eurodrone

Context:  India has joined the Medium Altitude Long Endurance Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (MALE RPAS), commonly known as the Eurodrone programme, as an observer state.

About Eurodrone Programme

• The Eurodrone is a remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS). 
• It is a four-nation initiative involving Germany, France, Italy, and Spain.
• Conceived as a “European Programme for European Sovereignty,”
  • The initiative was founded in 2022 and passed its preliminary design review (PDR) in 2024.
• Managed by: The Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR)
• Objectives
  • Mission Capabilities: Designed for long-endurance missions, including:
    • Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR)
    • Maritime surveillance
    • Anti-submarine warfare
    • Airborne early warning
• Features:
  • Data Security: Ensures exclusive and secure data handling for users.

Strategic Importance of India’s Participation

• Defence Cooperation with Europe: Strengthens India’s defence ties with Europe.
• Complementary Projects:
  • C-295 aircraft production in India (by Tata and Airbus).
  • Rafale M fighter jets for naval use.
  • Expected contracts for Scorpené-class submarines.
• Shared Defence Goals: Aligns with Europe’s collective strategy to reduce reliance on US and Israeli drones like Reaper and Heron.

KaWaCHaM

Context: Kerala Chief Minister has recently launched KaWaCHaM, one of the world’s fastest weather alert systems 

• KaWaCHaM is designed to enhance rescue and rehabilitation efforts during extreme weather events driven by climate change.

About KaWaCHaM

• KaWaCHaM’ stands for Kerala Warnings Crisis and Hazards Management System
• KaWaCHaM is an advanced disaster warning system that integrates alerts, sirens, and global weather models to improve the state’s early disaster preparedness and public safety.
• Developed By: Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA)
• Data Source: KaWaCHaM collects data from various sources like,
  • Weather networks such as India Meteorological Department, INCOIS, and CWC, private and public agencies, social media networks, and the Internet. 
• Funding: The initiative was funded by the National Disaster Management Authority and the World Bank as part of the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project.
• Headed By: KaWaCHaM will be headed by the state emergency operation centre and will operate at the taluk (subdistrict) level and cover all vulnerable areas
• Key Features:
  • Single Framework: Kerala will integrate all early warning systems into a framework that disseminates knowledge, issues warnings, monitors developing crises and ensures responses.
  • Roles: Hazard assessment, alert issuance, and action planning according to threat levels.
  • Coverage: The warnings will cover sea attacks, heavy rainfall, strong winds, and extreme heat.
  • Colour coded Sirens: The project aims to install 126 sirens and strobe lights across kerala. Each siren has three colours ie. red, yellow, and orange in the strobe light and is equipped with eight loudspeakers.
    •  These sirens can broadcast warnings up to 1,200 metres away and provide essential information about emergency camps and safety precautions.
  • The system will include pre-recorded voice messages and audio alerts to provide various warnings.

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Guillain-Barre Syndrome

Context: Pune city has observed an outbreak of the Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS), a rare neurological disorder with 59 people diagnosed.

About Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)

• It is a rare neurological condition in which the body’s immune system attacks the nerves, leading to weakness, numbness or even paralysis.
  • It affects the peripheral nerves, which control muscle movement, pain signals, and temperature and touch sensations.
• Target: The disease  can occur at any age, but it most commonly affects people between 30 and 50.
• Symptoms:  It may start with infections such as respiratory illness or a gastrointestinal infection followed by weakness in the face and then down the body.
• Causes:
  • Diarrhea or a Respiratory Infection: Infection with the bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, which causes diarrhea, is one of the most common triggers of GBS.
  • Viral infections: Some people with GBS have had the flu or infections with cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Zika virus or other viruses.
  • Vaccines: GBS can also be caused after vaccination, however it is rare.
  • Surgery: Very rarely, GBS can develop after any surgery.
• Diagnosis: The condition is diagnosed by conducting a physical exam ie. nerve conduction velocity test (NCV) to measure the nerve’s ability to send a signal. 
  • A doctor may also analyse the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the spinal cord.
• Treatment: There is  no known cure for Guillain-Barré syndrome but some treatment options include,
  • Plasma Exchange (plasmapheresis): Plasma exchange filters out the antibodies in your plasma that are attacking your nerves.
  • Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy (IVIG): It  involves intravenous (IV) injections of immunoglobulins to attack invading organisms.

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