Recently, the Union finance minister presented the Union Budget for FY 2025-26 in the Lok Sabha.

• The Union Budget outlines key economic policies, reforms, and allocations that will shape India’s growth trajectory.
• Theme of  Union Budget 2025-26:  “Sabka Vikas” stimulating balanced growth of all regions.
• India’s Union Budget for 2025-26 has set the total government expenditure at Rs 50.65 lakh crore, reflecting an increase from Rs 47.16 lakh crore in the revised estimates for 2024-25. 

Budgetary Allocations & Estimates

Revised Estimates (2024-25)

• Total Receipts (Excluding Borrowings): ₹31.47 lakh crore
• Net Tax Receipts: ₹25.57 lakh crore
• Total Expenditure: ₹47.16 lakh crore
• Capital Expenditure: ₹10.18 lakh crore

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Budget Estimates (2025-26)

• Total Receipts (Excluding Borrowings): ₹34.96 lakh crore
• Net Tax Receipts: ₹28.37 lakh crore
• Total Expenditure: ₹50.65 lakh crore

Where Rupee comes from	Where Rupee goes to

Fiscal Consolidation: Strengthening Economic Stability

• Committed to Fiscal Discipline: The Government aims to maintain a sustainable fiscal deficit, ensuring Central Government debt remains on a declining trajectory.
• Fiscal Deficit Targets:
• • Revised Estimate (2024-25): 4.8% of GDP
  • Budget Estimate (2025-26): 4.4% of GDP

Key Highlights of Union Budget 2025-26

The Finance Minister started presenting the budget  by quoting Telugu poet and playwright Shri Gurajada Appa Rao’s famous saying, “A country is not just its soil; a country is its people” emphasizing people centric budgets.

Aspiration of Viksit Bharat: 

1. Zero-poverty;
2. Hundred percent good quality school education;
3. Access to high-quality, affordable, and comprehensive healthcare;
4. Hundred per cent skilled labour with meaningful employment;
5. Seventy per cent women in economic activities; and
6. Farmers making our country the ‘food basket of the world’.

The Union Budget 2025-2026 promises to continue Government’s efforts to accelerate growth, secure inclusive development, invigorate private sector investments, uplift household sentiments, and enhance spending power of India’s rising middle class.

Focus Areas of Budget

The Budget proposes development measures focusing on the Poor (Garib), Youth, Farmer (Annadata) and Women (Nari).

The Budget aims to initiate transformative reforms in Taxation, Power Sector, Urban Development, Mining, Financial Sector, and Regulatory Reforms to augment India’s growth potential and global competitiveness

Engines for journey towards Viksit Bharat

The Union Budget highlights that Agriculture, MSME, Investment, and Exports are engines in the journey to Viksit Bharat using reforms as fuel, guided by the spirit of inclusivity.

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1st Engine: Agriculture

• Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana: Covers 100 districts for productivity growth, crop diversification, post-harvest storage, irrigation, and credit access.
• Rural Prosperity and Resilience Programme: Aims to tackle underemployment through skilling, investment, technology, and economic revitalization. Focuses on rural women, young farmers, and small/marginal farmers.
• Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: A 6-year initiative targeting Tur, Urad, and Masoor, with NAFED and NCCF ensuring procurement for the next 4 years.

• Agricultural Productivity Measures: Includes a Comprehensive Programme for Vegetables & Fruits, National Mission on High Yielding Seeds, and a five-year Mission for Cotton Productivity.
• Kisan Credit Card Loan Limit Increase: Raised from ₹3 lakh to ₹5 lakh under a Modified interest subvention scheme (MISS)
• Makhana Board for Bihar: To enhance production, processing, and value addition of makhana.
• India Post as Rural Growth Facilitator:
  • Rural community hub colocation
  • Institutional account services;
  • DBT, cash out and EMI pickup
  • Credit services to micro enterprises
  • Insurance; and
  • Assisted digital services.

2nd Engine: MSMEs

• MSMEs as Growth Drivers: Contribute 45% of exports; investment and turnover limits raised to 2.5x and 2x, respectively.

• Significant enhancement of credit availability with guarantee cover

• Credit Cards for Micro Enterprises: Customised Credit Cards with a ₹ 5 lakh limit for micro enterprises registered on Udyam portal.
  • In the first year, 10 lakh such cards will be issued.
• New Entrepreneur Scheme: Offers term loans up to ₹2 crore for 5 lakh women, Scheduled Caste, and Scheduled Tribe first-time entrepreneurs over five years.
• Toys Manufacturing Promotion: A new scheme to establish India as a global hub for ‘Made in India’ toys.
• National Manufacturing Mission: Supports MSMEs alongside medium and large industries to promote “Make in India”

3rd Engine: Investment

Investment in People

• Atal Tinkering Labs : 50000 new ATL in government schools.
• Broadband connectivity for rural government schools and primary health centers under Bharatnet.
• Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Scheme for digital Indian-language books.
• 5 National Centres of Excellence for skilling with global partnerships.
• ₹500 crore for AI Centre of Excellence for education.
• Gig worker’s identity cards, e-Shram registration, and healthcare under PM Jan Arogya Yojana.
• PM SVANidhi : To be revamped with enhanced loans from banks , UPI linked Credit Card and Capacity Building Support.
• Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0
• Day Care Centres in all Districts.
• Expansion of Capacity in IITS
• Expansion of Medical Education: 10,000 additional seats with goal of Adding 75000 seats in next 5 years

Investing in People , Economy and Innovation

Investment in Innovation

• ₹20,000 crore allocated for private-sector-driven R&D and innovation.
• National Geospatial Mission for urban planning infrastructure.
• Gyan Bharatam Mission for documenting 1 crore manuscripts and a National Digital Repository of Indian Knowledge Systems.

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Employment Generation through Tourism

4th Engine: Exports

• Export Promotion Mission: Collaborative effort by the Ministries of Commerce, MSME, and Finance to help MSMEs enter global markets.
• BharatTradeNet (BTN): A digital public infrastructure for trade documentation and financing solutions.
• Domestic Manufacturing Support: Strengthens integration into global supply chains and promotes Industry 4.0 readiness.
• Global Capability Centres: Proposed National Framework to establish emerging tier-2 cities as global service hubs.
• Infrastructure & Warehousing: Government-backed improvements in air cargo facilities, especially for high-value perishable horticulture products.

Reforms as the Fuel to the Engines of Viksit Bharat

Recognizing reforms as the driving force behind economic growth, the Union Finance Minister emphasized the Government’s continuous efforts over the past decade to enhance ease of doing business, simplify taxation, and strengthen the financial sector. 

• These reforms serve as the essential fuel propelling the four engines Agriculture, MSMEs, Investment, and Exports towards the vision of Viksit Bharat.

Taxation & Compliance Reforms

• Faceless Assessment & Taxpayer-Centric Reforms: Implementation of faceless assessment, taxpayer charter, faster refunds, and self-assessment-based returns (99% acceptance).
• “Trust First, Scrutinize Later” Approach: Strengthened taxpayer trust with Vivad se Vishwas scheme and minimal scrutiny for compliance.

Financial Sector Reforms & Development

• Ease of Doing Business: Comprehensive changes across financial regulations to streamline compliance, encourage investment, and promote a robust regulatory environment.
• FDI Limit in Insurance: Increased from 74% to 100%, applicable to companies reinvesting all premiums in India.
• Light-Touch Regulatory Framework: A principle-based, trust-driven regulatory environment to boost productivity and job creation.

Key Reform Measures

• High-Level Committee for Regulatory Reforms
  • Reviews non-financial sector regulations, certifications, licenses, and permissions.
  • Strengthens trust-based economic governance, simplifying inspections and compliance.
  • States encouraged to onboard, recommendations expected within a year.
• Investment Friendliness Index of States (2025): Aims to promote competitive cooperative federalism by ranking states based on investment climate.
• Financial Stability & Development Council (FSDC) Mechanism: Evaluates current financial regulations to improve responsiveness and financial sector growth.
• Jan Vishwas Bill 2.0: Decriminalizes over 100 provisions across various laws, ensuring a pro-business legal environment.
• Tax Reform: Changes in direct taxes and proposal to introduce the New Income Tax Bill.

Taxation Proposals

Direct Taxes Proposals

1. New Direct Tax Slabs

• Tax-Free Income Limit Raised: No income tax on annual income up to ₹12 Lakh.
• Salaried Taxpayers Benefit: Those earning up to ₹12.75 Lakh pay NIL tax due to a ₹75,000 standard deduction.
• Revenue Impact: ₹1 Lakh Crore loss due to tax reductions.

2. Ease of Doing Business

• Introduction of a scheme for determining arm’s length price of international transaction for a block period of three years. 
• Expansion of scope of safe harbour rules to reduce litigation and provide certainty in international taxation

3. TDS/TCS Rationalization & Compliance Ease

• Senior Citizens’ Interest Income: TDS deduction limit doubled from ₹50,000 to ₹1 Lakh.
• Rent TDS Threshold Increased: From ₹2.4 Lakh to ₹6 Lakh per annum.
• Higher TDS Deductions Only for Non-PAN Cases.
• Delay in TCS Payments Decriminalized.

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4. Encouraging Voluntary Compliance

• Encouraging voluntary compliance: Extended Time for Filing Updated Tax Returns from 2 years to 4 years.
• Charitable Trusts & Institutions: Registration period extended from 5 years to 10 years.
• Self-Occupied Property: Tax payers to be allowed to claim the annual value of 02 self occupied properties (previously 01) without any conditions (previously conditions attached).
• Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme Success: 33,000 taxpayers availed the scheme.
• Senior Citizens’ Benefits:
  • Exemption on withdrawals from National Savings Scheme (NSS) after August 29, 2024.
  • Similar exemptions extended to NPS Vatsalya accounts.

5. Ease of Doing Business & International Taxation

• New Scheme for Determining Arm’s Length Pricing: Introduced for a block period of three years.
• Expansion of Safe Harbor Rules: To ensure certainty in international taxation.
• Extension for incorporation by 5 years of Start-Ups.
• Specific benefits to ship-leasing units, insurance offices and treasury centres of global companies which are set up in IFSC 
• Certainty of taxation to Category I and category II AIFs, undertaking investments in infrastructure and other such sectors, on the gains from securities.

6. Incentivizing Employment & Investment

• Presumptive Taxation for Non-Residents: For those providing services to Indian electronics manufacturing firms.
• Tonnage Tax Scheme Extended to Inland Vessels.
• Start-ups Encouraged: Incorporation period extended by five years.
• Infrastructure Investment: Sovereign and Pension Fund investment deadline extended to March 31, 2030.

Indirect Tax Proposals

1. Rationalisation of Customs Tariff Structure for Industrial Goods

• Removal of 07 tariff rates
• Apply not more than one cess or surcharge
• Apply equivalent cess to maintain effective duty incidence on most items and lower cess on certain items.

2. Sector specific proposals

• Make in India- Exemption to open cell for LED/LCD TV, looms for textiles, capital goods for lithium ion battery of mobile phones and EVs
• Promotion of MRO – exemption for 10 years on goods for ship building and ships for breaking, extension of time limit for export of railway goods imported for repairs.
• Export promotion – duty free inputs for handicraft and leather sectors.
• Trade Facilitation: Time limit fixed for finalisation of provisional assessment; new provision for voluntary declaration of material facts post clearance and duty payment with interest but without penalty; IGCR Rules amended to extend time limit to 1 year and file quarterly statement instead of monthly.

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3. Improved access to life saving medicines

• Addition of: 
  • 36 lifesaving drugs/medicines are exempted from Basic Customs Duty (BCD).
  • 6 medicines in 5% duty list; 
  • 37 medicines and 13 new patient assistance programmes in exempt list

4. Rationalization of Customs Tariffs on Industrial Goods

• Seven Tariffs Removed.
• Cess Adjustments to Maintain Effective Duty.
• No More than One Cess or Surcharge to be Levied.

5. Supporting Domestic Manufacturing & Value Addition

• Customs Duty Exemptions:
  • 25 critical minerals, including cobalt, lithium-ion battery waste, lead, and zinc.
  • Two additional shuttle-less looms added to the exempted textile machinery list.
• Knitted Fabric BCD Revision: From “10% to 20%” changed to “20% or ₹115/kg, whichever is higher”.

6. Boost to ‘Make in India’

• Inverted Duty Structure Fixes:
  • BCD on Interactive Flat Panel Displays (IFPD) increased to 20%.
  • BCD on Open Cells reduced to 5%.
  • BCD exemption on Open Cell Parts to boost domestic manufacturing.

7. Electric Vehicle & Mobile Battery Manufacturing Support

• Exemptions on Capital Goods Imports:
  • 35 items for EV battery manufacturing.
  • 28 items for mobile battery production.

8. Shipbuilding & Telecommunications Support

• BCD Exemption Extended for Another 10 Years on shipbuilding materials.
• Carrier-Grade Ethernet Switches BCD Reduced from 20% to 10% to match non-carrier grade switches.

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9. Export Promotion & Industry-Specific Relief

• Handicrafts Export Incentives.
• Duty Exemptions & Reductions:
  • Wet Blue Leather: Fully exempted for export value addition.
  • Frozen Fish Paste: BCD reduced from 30% to 5%.
  • Fish Hydrolysate: BCD cut from 15% to 5% for fish & shrimp feed production.

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The Enforcement Directorate has filed an Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR) against 16 cooperative banks and societies under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act.

Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR)

• An ECIR is a formal document that records the complaint lodged by the Enforcement Directorate regarding a particular case. 
• It serves several purposes, including: Identification of the case and facilitating departmental convenience.
  • Initiating ED proceedings, which may involve the attachment of assets and arrests.

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Key Features of ECIR

• Internal Document: The ECIR is an internal document meant for the Enforcement Directorate’s use.
• No Mention in PMLA Act: The ECIR is not mentioned in the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) or its rules.
• Not Equivalent to an FIR: ECIR cannot be equated with a First Information Report (FIR), which is typically filed in criminal cases.

Disclosure of ECIR in Arrest Cases

• It is not mandatory for the Enforcement Directorate to provide a copy of the ECIR to the concerned individual in every case.
• However, the ED must disclose the grounds for arrest at the time of making an arrest, as per legal requirements.

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A recent study has revealed that the fur of polar bears contains a unique oily substance that helps them stay dry even when sliding on ice or diving into water. 

Significance of the discovery

• This discovery could inspire the development of sustainable alternatives to Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs), commonly known as “forever chemicals”.

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Key Findings of the Study

• Oily Substance in Polar Bear Fur: The oily substance, called sebum, is secreted by the skin of polar bears.
  • It helps repel water and ice, keeping the bears dry and insulated in their icy Arctic habitat.
  • Polar bear’s sebum did not contain squalene, a fatty oil commonly found in the hair of humans, sea otters, and many aquatic mammals.
• Comparison to PFAs: The properties of polar bear sebum are similar to those of PFAs, which are widely used in products like nonstick cookware, water-repellent clothing, and stain-resistant fabrics.
  • Unlike PFAs, polar bear sebum is natural and environmentally friendly.
• Potential Applications: The study suggests that polar bear sebum could inspire the creation of eco-friendly coatings for industrial and consumer products.
  • This could reduce the reliance on harmful PFAs and promote sustainable manufacturing processes.

About Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAs)

• PFAs are synthetic chemicals known as “forever chemicals” because they do not break down easily and persist in the environment for long periods.
  • Example: Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). 
• They are used in a wide range of products, including nonstick cookware, waterproof clothing, cosmetics, and firefighting foams.

Environmental and Health Concerns of PFAs

• PFAs can migrate into soil, water, and air during production and use.
• They accumulate in the bodies of humans and animals, leading to serious health issues such as decreased fertility, developmental problems in children, and other long-term effects.

Implications of the Study

• Sustainable Alternatives to PFAs: The unique properties of polar bear sebum could lead to the development of natural, biodegradable coatings to replace PFAs in various industries.
  • This would reduce environmental pollution and health risks associated with “forever chemicals.”
• Promoting Eco-Friendly Manufacturing: By mimicking the natural water-repellent properties of polar bear fur, industries can adopt more environmentally conscious practices.

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The Supreme Court has held that tanneries in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu, have caused irreversible environmental damage by discharging untreated or partially treated effluents into the Palar River. 

• The court directed the Tamil Nadu government to compensate the affected individuals, with the cost to be recovered from the polluting units under the ‘Polluter Pays’ principle.

Key Observations by the Supreme Court

• Sustainable Development:
  • Sustainable Development means meeting our needs today without harming the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
  • The court reaffirmed that the “Precautionary Principle” and the “Polluter Pays Principle” are essential features of Sustainable Development.
  • It stressed the need for balancing environmental conservation with economic activities.
• Polluter Pays Principle:
  • This principle mandates that those responsible for pollution must bear the cost of managing it to prevent harm to human health and the environment.
  • This ensures that polluters take responsibility and helps fund environmental restoration efforts.
• Precautionary Principle:
  • If an activity might cause serious harm to the environment or human health, preventive action should be taken, even if scientific proof is not complete.
  • This principle encourages proactive environmental protection rather than waiting for conclusive proof of damage.

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Directions to Tamil Nadu Government

• Formation of an Expert Committee: The Tamil Nadu government, in consultation with the central government, has been directed to constitute an Expert Committee within four weeks. 
• Strict Licensing Measures: Authorities must cancel the licenses of industries that misrepresent information or violate environmental regulations.

What are Tanneries?

• Tanneries are factories where animal hides are processed and transformed into leather.
• The leather industry is one of the most polluting industries due to the toxic chemicals used in processing.

Impact of Tanneries on the Environment

• Water Pollution: Tanneries discharge toxic chemicals such as chromium, sulfides, and acids into water bodies.
• Groundwater Contamination: Unchecked disposal leads to high levels of pollutants in groundwater, making it unsafe for drinking and agriculture.
• Soil Degradation: Toxic effluents degrade soil quality, impacting agricultural productivity.
• Health Hazards: The pollution affects local communities, causing respiratory issues, skin diseases, and other health concerns.

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About the Palar River

• The Palar River is one of the major rivers in southern India, playing a vital role in the ecology and economy of the regions it flows through. 
• Origin and Course: The Palar River originates in the Nandi Hills, located in the Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka.
  • It flows through three states: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, before finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal at Vayalur in Tamil Nadu.
• Major Tributaries: The Palar River is fed by several tributaries, the most significant being the Cheyyar and Ponnai rivers, both located in Tamil Nadu.
• Water Diversion:  Water from the Palar River is diverted through the Palar anicut (a traditional water diversion structure) to two important reservoirs:
  • Poondi Reservoir: Located in the Kosasthalaiyar River basin, this reservoir helps meet the water needs of the region.
  • Chembarambakkam Lake: Situated in the Adayar River basin, this lake is a crucial source of water for irrigation and drinking purposes.

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Ahead of World Wetlands Day on 2nd February, four more wetlands in India have been recognized as Ramsar sites under the Ramsar Convention. 

• Inclusion of new wetlands brings the total number of globally recognized wetlands in the country to 89. 
• The newly designated sites are:
  1. Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary and Therthangal Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu.
  2. Khecheopalri Wetland in Sikkim.
  3. Udhwa Lake in Jharkhand.

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Key figures about the Ramsar Sites

• Tamil Nadu now leads India with 20 Ramsar sites, the highest number in the country. Uttar Pradesh follows with 10 sites.
• Sikkim and Jharkhand have received their first Ramsar sites: Khecheopalri Wetland and Udhwa Lake, respectively.
• India ranks third globally with 89 Ramsar sites, after the United Kingdom (176) and Mexico (144). India also has the highest number of Ramsar sites in Asia.
• Over the last decade, India’s Ramsar sites have increased to 89, with 47 sites added in the last three years.

Criteria for Ramsar Site Designation

• Represents rare or unique natural wetland types.
• Supports endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
• Maintains biodiversity in specific biogeographic regions.
• Offers refuge during adverse conditions.
• Regularly accommodates 20,000 or more waterbirds.
• Sustains 1% of the population of a single waterbird species.
• Serves as a critical source of food, spawning grounds, nurseries, and migration paths for fish.
• Regularly supports 1% of the population of non-avian wetland-dependent animal species.

New Ramsar Sites

Khecheopalri Lake (Sikkim)

• Originally known as Kha-Chot-Palri, meaning “the heaven of Padmasambhava,” this lake is located near Khecheopalri village in West Sikkim.
• It is considered sacred by both Buddhists and Hindus and is believed to be a wish-fulfilling lake.
• The local name for the lake is Sho Dzo Sho, which means “Oh Lady, Sit Here.”
• The lake drains water from the Ramam watershed, named after the Ramam mountain.

Udhwa Lake Bird Sanctuary (Jharkhand)

• Located in the Sahibganj district of Jharkhand, this sanctuary is situated on the floodplain of the Ganga River.
• It consists of two interconnected water bodies, Patauda and Berhale, which are linked by a water channel.
• Recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA), the sanctuary is significant for avian habitat conservation.

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Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)

• Located in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, this sanctuary is an irrigation tank that stores water for agriculture.
• The tank is recharged by the northeast monsoon from October to January.
• This sanctuary lies along the Central Asian Flyway, serving as a critical breeding and foraging ground for waterbirds such as the Spot billed Pelican, Egret, Common Myna, Grey Heron etc.

Therthangal Bird Sanctuary  (Tamil Nadu)

• Therthangal Bird Sanctuary is located in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu.
• It serves as a critical breeding and foraging ground for various waterbird species such as the White -breasted Kingfisher, Spot- billed Pelican, Brahminy Kite etc.

What Are Wetlands?

According to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, wetlands are defined as:

• Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary.
• They include areas with static or flowing water, fresh, brackish, or saltwater, including marine areas where the water depth at low tide does not exceed six meters.
• Wetlands are transitional zones between terrestrial (land) and aquatic (water) ecosystems.

Significance of Wetlands

1. Source of Water: Wetlands absorb rainwater and help recharge groundwater.
2. Flood and Storm Buffer: They act like sponges, absorbing rainfall and snowmelt, and allowing water to percolate gently into the soil, reducing the risk of floods.
3. Water Purification: Wetlands trap contaminants in sediments and plants, reducing pollutants like phosphorus and nitrogen from agricultural runoff.
4. Habitats for Migratory Birds: Wetlands provide feeding, resting, and nesting grounds for migratory birds.
5. Biodiversity Hotspots: Many wetlands are home to a variety of endemic and endangered species. For example, Keibul Lamjao, a floating national park in Manipur, is the only natural habitat of the globally endangered Brow-antlered Deer.

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About the Ramsar Convention

• The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty focused on “the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.” 
• The treaty is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where it was signed on 2nd February 1971. 
  • February 2nd is celebrated every year as World Wetlands Day.
  • The Ramsar Convention came into force in 1975.
• The convention has three main pillars:
  • Work towards the wise use of all wetlands.
  • Designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar List) and ensure their effective management.
  • Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared species.

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A woman in Kerala was awarded the death sentence for poisoning her boyfriend in 2022 with a chemical herbicide called paraquat.

The Sharon Raj Murder Case

• A woman named Greeshma poisoned her boyfriend, Sharon Raj, by mixing paraquat into his food. The chemical caused severe internal damage, leading to his death.
• Legal Outcome: A Thiruvananthapuram court sentenced Greeshma to death for premeditated murder.

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What is paraquat?

• Definition: Paraquat, also known as paraquat dichloride or methyl viologen, is one of the world’s most-used herbicides.
• Uses: It is widely used as a herbicide for controlling weeds and drying crops like cotton before harvest.
• Toxicity: it is classified as a Category 2 chemical (moderately hazardous) by the World Health Organization (WHO).
  • Paraquat is banned in over 70 countries, including China and the European Union, due to its high toxicity. However, it is still used in countries like the US and India.

Usage in India

• In India, paraquat is regulated under the Insecticides Act, 1968, and is approved for use on crops like wheat, rice, tea, and coffee.
• However, its misuse and lack of regulation have led to several poisoning cases.

How Does Paraquat Poisoning Occur?

• Ingestion: The most common route, often leading to fatal outcomes.
• Skin Contact: Prolonged exposure can lead to absorption through the skin.
• Inhalation: Can cause respiratory issues.
• Mechanism of Action: Paraquat causes direct damage to the lining of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. 
  • It spreads rapidly through the body, damaging the lungs, liver, and kidneys. 
  • Cells absorb paraquat through active transport, accelerating its toxic effects.

Symptoms of Paraquat Poisoning

• Mild Exposure:
  • Abdominal pain, swelling in the mouth and throat, nausea, and bloody diarrhea.
  • Over time, damage to the heart, kidneys, liver, and lungs may occur.
• Severe Exposure:
  • Acute kidney failure, rapid heart rate, liver failure, seizures, and respiratory failure.
  • Death can occur within hours or days, depending on the amount ingested.

Treatment for Paraquat Poisoning

• There is no known antidote for paraquat poisoning.
• Immediate Measures: 
  • Swallowing activated charcoal or Fuller’s earth (multani mitti) to absorb the chemical.
  • Removing contaminated clothing and washing the skin with soap and water.
• Hospital Treatment:
  • Supportive care, including immunosuppression or charcoal hemoperfusion, may be used, but survival rates are low.

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Regulations and Restrictions

• In India: Despite regulations, paraquat is often sold without proper prescriptions or safety guidelines. Farmers frequently misuse it without protective gear, leading to accidental poisonings.
• In the US: Paraquat is restricted to licensed commercial users and is banned for personal or residential use. 

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The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) has approved an increase in the ethanol procurement price for public sector oil marketing companies (OMCs) from ₹56.58 per litre to ₹57.97 per litre.

Rationale Behind the Hike in Ethanol Procurement Prices

• Increased Ethanol Supply: Higher prices ensure adequate ethanol availability to meet the growing blending targets.
• Support for Farmers: Encourages the use of C Heavy Molasses (CHM), benefiting sugarcane farmers by providing an additional revenue source.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduces dependency on crude oil imports, lowers emissions, and supports the transition to greener fuels.
• Economic Gains: Saves foreign exchange by reducing fuel imports and strengthens the domestic ethanol industry.

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About Ethanol Blending

• Also known as: Ethyl alcohol.
• Sources: Ethanol is a biofuel produced from sugarcane, corn, rice, wheat, and biomass.
• Molasses: A byproduct of sugar manufacturing, primarily used for ethanol production.
• Categories of Molasses:
  • A Molasses (First Molasses): Intermediate by-product from initial sugar crystal extraction, containing 80-85% dry matter (DM).
  • B Molasses (Second Molasses): Similar DM content but with less sugar and no spontaneous crystallization.
  • C Molasses (Final Molasses/Blackstrap Molasses/Treacle): End by-product of sugar processing with 32-42% sucrose, used as a commercial feed ingredient.
    • It is also known as C Heavy Molasses (CHM).
• Production Process: Ethanol is produced through fermentation of sugars by yeasts or via petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration.
• Applications:
  • Used as a biofuel, solvent, and disinfectant.
  • Applications in fuel blending, pharmaceuticals, alcoholic beverages, cosmetics, and chemical synthesis.
  • Also used in biodegradable plastics, agriculture, and cleaning products.

About Ethanol Blending

• Definition: The practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline to create a fuel mixture for internal combustion engines.

• Purpose: Reduces emissions and improves engine performance.
• Common Blends:
  • E20: Petrol blended with 20% ethanol.
  • E100: 93-93.5% ethanol blended with 5% petrol and 1.5% co-solvent.
• Flex-Fuel Vehicles (FFVs): Designed to operate on different ethanol blends, up to E100.

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About Ethanol Blending Programme

• Initiative: Launched by the Government of India to promote the use of ethanol as a renewable and environment-friendly fuel in petrol.
• Aim:
  • Reduce fuel imports.
  • Conserve foreign exchange.
  • Increase value addition in the sugar industry.
• National Policy on Biofuels 2018 Target: Achieve 20% ethanol blending in petrol by Ethanol Supply Year (ESY) 2025-26.
• Government Initiatives:
  • Fixing remunerative ethanol prices.
  • Simplifying procurement and supply procedures.
  • Waiving excise duty.
  • Providing financial assistance for ethanol production.

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The Aadhaar Authentication for Good Governance (Social Welfare, Innovation, Knowledge) Amendment Rules, 2025 has been recently notified by The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI).

• The rules outlines a process to provide Aadhaar Authentication to private entities based on the approval of their proposal for the facility

About the Amended Rules

• Objective: To enable both government and non-government entities to avail Aadhaar authentication service for providing various services in the public interest and to help improve transparency and inclusivity in the decision-making process.
• Purpose: Aadhaar authentication is sought for providing services for specific purposes like,
  • Enablement of innovation, spread of knowledge, promoting ease of living of residents and enabling better access to services for them in sectors like e-commerce, travel, tourism, hospitality and health sector, etc
• Proposal: Any private entity willing to utilize Aadhaar authentication, shall prepare a proposal for a purpose specified in rule 3 of the Aadhar Act and submit it to the concerned Ministry or Department of the respective government..
  • The concerned ministry will forward the proposal to the Union government along with its recommendations to the Centre.
• Examination: The applications of private entities will be examined by UIDAI (Unique Identification Authority of India) 
• Approval: The Ministry of Electronics and IT (Meity) will issue the approval based on the recommendation of UIDAI for using Aadhaar authentication.
• Notification: The concerned ministry or department of the central or state government will notify the entity for Aadhaar usage after receiving confirmation from The Ministry of Electronics and IT (Meity).
  • Rule 3: It allows Aadhaar authentication for usage of digital platforms to ensure good governance, prevention of dissipation of social welfare benefits and enablement of innovation and the spread of knowledge.
    • One of the sub-rules under rule 3 mandates that Aadhaar authentication should be on a voluntary basis.

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Private Entity Authentication of Aadhaar

• Puttaswamy v Union of India (2018): The five-judge Supreme Court judgment in Puttaswamy v Union of India (2018) struck down Section 57 of the Aadhaar Act, 2016. It disallows private entities from using Aadhaar authentication services.
  • The Supreme Court had termed Section 57 of the Aadhaar Act “susceptible to misuse”. 
• The Section 57: It  empowered private entities to seek and use Aadhaar authentication for business purposes.
  • Private companies like Paytm and Airtel Payments Bank sought Aadhaar details from customers under this provision to establish their entities.
• Reading down Section 2(d) of the Aadhaar Act: The  court also ruled that authentication record should not include metadata. Records cannot be kept beyond the period of six months.

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A new study has found that the tiger population in India has increased by 30% over the past two decades.

About Tiger 

• Tigers are the largest wild cat species in the world.
• Scientific name: Panthera tigris
• Conservation status IUCN: Endangered
• Significance: They are apex predators and play a vital role in maintaining healthy ecosystems.
• Habitat Requirements: Tigers are “landscape” species.
  • They need vast areas with diverse habitats. 
    • These areas must be free from human disturbance and rich in prey to support tigers.
    • These areas, called tiger landscapes, are crucial for biodiversity and the well-being of human communities living nearby.
• Current Tiger Population in India
  • India has a minimum of 3,167 tigers, according to the 2022 estimation.
  • Further data analysis, using advanced statistical models, estimates:
    • Upper limit: 3,925 tigers
    • Average population: 3,682 tigers
  • The annual growth rate of the tiger population stands at 6.1%, indicating steady progress.

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Key Factors Behind Tiger Recovery

• Balanced Conservation Strategy
  • India’s conservation success is due to a scientific approach and a mix of land-sharing and land-sparing methods.
  • Protected areas (land sparing)—where humans are restricted—support 85% of breeding tigers.
  • Multi-use forests (land sharing) allow tigers to live alongside human populations, proving that coexistence is possible.
• Strong Legislative Support
  • Conservation efforts are backed by strict wildlife laws, including:
    • Wildlife Protection Act 1972
    • Forest Conservation Act 1980
    • National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
• Role of Socio-Economic Factors
  • Economic prosperity and cultural values have helped in tiger conservation.
  • Areas with less dependence on forests and better economic conditions see higher tiger recolonization.
  • Challenges:
    • Regions with high poverty and conflicts (like Naxal-affected areas in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand) have witnessed tiger population decline.

Future Challenges & Recommendations

• Challenges
  • 157,000 sq km of potential tiger habitat remains unoccupied due to political instability and habitat loss.
  • Human-wildlife conflict continues to pose a challenge.
• Recommendations for Improvement
  • Expand protected areas and habitat corridors.
  • Strengthen anti-poaching measures to protect tigers.
  • Promote sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
  • Improve conflict mitigation strategies, including:
    • Early warning systems.
    • Rapid response teams.

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RBI’s Digital Payments Index (RBI-DPI)

Context: The RBI’s Digital Payments Index (RBI-DPI) has been released recently.

Key Highlights of the Index

• The DPI for September 2024 stands at 465.33, up from 445.50 in March 2024.
•  Volume Basis: The total value of digital payments grew from ₹5.86 lakh crore in 2018 to ₹246.83 lakh crore in 2024.
• CAGR: Digital Payments grew with a five-year CAGR of 89.3 per cent and 86.5 per cent in terms of volume and value, respectively,
• Unified Payments Interface (UPI): It contributed the most to India’s digital payments growth with its share in the country’s digital payments rising from 34 per cent in 2019 to 83 per cent in 2024
  • It grew with a remarkable CAGR (cumulative average growth rate) of 74 per cent over the last five years.
  • Volume: The volume of UPI transactions rose from 375 crore in 2018 to 17,221 crore in 2024
• Share of Other Payment Systems: The share of  RTGS, NEFT, IMPS, credit cards, and debit cards fell from 66 per cent to 17 per cent.
• Reason for Growth: The increase in the RBI-DPI index was driven by growth in payment infrastructure and payment performance across the country over the period, 

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About Digital Payments Index (RBI-DPI)

• It is an Index to gauge the extent of digitisation of payments across the country. 
  • The index is released on a semi-annual basis.
• Launched: The RBI has been publishing the composite RBI-DPI since 1 January 2021.
• Base Year: March 2018 has been taken as the base year with  the DPI score set at 100.
• Parameters: It measures the penetration and deepening of digital payments over different periods. These are,
  • Payment Enablers (weightage 25 per cent): It includes Internet, Mobile, Aadhaar, Bank accounts, Participants and Merchants.
  • Payment Infrastructure (Demand-side factors (10 per cent): Debit cards, Credit cards, PPI, FASTags, Mobile and Internet banking.
  • Payment Infrastructure (Supply-side factors (15 per cent): Bank Branches, Business Correspondents, ATMs, PoS Terminals, QR Codes and Intermediaries.
  • Payment Performance (45 per cent): Digital Payment Systems- Value, Unique users, Paper clearing, currency in circulation and cash withdrawals.
  • Consumer Centricity (5 per cent): Awareness and Education, Declines, Complaints, Fraud and Systems downtime.

Karnataka allows  Euthanasia for the Terminally Ill

Context: The Karnataka Health Department has issued an order to implement the Supreme Court’s ruling allowing terminally ill patients to die with dignity.

• Karnataka is the second State after Kerala to implement the directive.
• Terminally Ill Patients: Passive euthanasia is allowed for the Terminally ill patients with no hope of recovery or those who are in a persistent vegetative state and where the patient no longer benefits from life-sustaining treatment.

About The Supreme Court’s Judgement 

• Common Cause v/s Union of India 2018: A five-Judge Bench of the Supreme Court has held that the right to die with dignity is a fundamental right under Article 21.
  • Living Will: An individual’s right to execute advance medical directives is an assertion of the right to bodily integrity and self-determination and does not depend on any recognition or legislation by a State.
• The judgement legalised passive euthanasia and the execution of Living Wills under strict guidelines.

Guidelines For Living Wills

It recognises the rights and duties of both doctors and patients, and allows for extensive independent expert opinion and the informed consent of next-of-kin/ surrogate decision-makers.

• Eligibility: Living wills are written documents made by a person of age 18 years or older with sound mind and free from coercion.
• Appoint Guardians: The document should detail at least two surrogate decision-makers who can make decisions on behalf of the person if they lose decision-making capacity.
• Legality: The document has to be signed in the presence of an executor and two witnesses, and attested before a notary or gazetted officer.

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The Guidelines For State governments and Hospitals 

• Assessment: The treating hospital should constitute a Primary Medical Board to assess the patient’s condition, and to recommend whether to withdraw life-sustaining treatment.
  • The board is composed of the treating doctor and two subject-matter experts with at least five years of experience.
• Review: A Secondary Medical Board, (set up by the hospital) reviews the decision of the Primary Medical Board.
  • It comprises a registered medical practitioner nominated by the district Chief Medical Officer, along with two subject-matter experts with at least five years of experience.
• Informed Consent: The persons nominated by the patient in the living will or surrogate decision-makers (where there is no directive) must consent to the withholding or withdrawal of treatment.
• The hospital must notify decisions on withholding/ withdrawing life-sustaining treatment to the local judicial magistrate.

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