Oct 07 2024

International Medical Device Regulators Forum (IMDRF)

International Medical Device Regulators Forum (IMDRF)

Context: India becomes an affiliate member of International Medical Device Regulators Forum ( IMDRF).

About IMDRF:

  • Nature of Grouping: It is a voluntary group comprising medical device regulators from various countries.
  • Establishment: The IMDRF was formed in 2011.
  • Goal of IMDRF: To accelerate international medical device regulatory harmonisation and convergence. 
  • Foundation of GHTF: The IMDRF builds upon the foundational work of the Global Harmonization Task Force on Medical Devices (GHTF), which previously worked on aligning medical device regulations globally.
  • Current Members: The IMDRF includes regulatory authorities from the U.S., Australia, Canada, the European Union, Japan, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Russia, China, South Korea, Singapore, and the World Health Organization (WHO).

India’s Path to Membership: In 2024, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare applied for IMDRF affiliate membership, which was approved at the 26th session in September 2024, Seattle, USA.

Benefits of IMDRF Affiliate Membership

  • Harmonisation and Reduction in Regulatory Compliance:  India’s membership aligns its medical device regulations with global standards, reducing regulatory complexities globally  and improving public health protection.
  • Participation in Open Sessions: India can now participate in open sessions to exchange information, discuss regulatory strategies, and adopt IMDRF documents for its domestic framework.
  • Enhanced Domestic Competitiveness: CDSCO’s regulatory framework will be strengthened, enabling it to handle emerging technical challenges.
  • Boosting “Brand India”: The membership will also help Indian medical device manufacturers meet global regulatory requirements, boosting their presence in international markets.

Tourism Development Index 2024 (TTDI)

Tourism Development Index 2024 (TTDI)

 

Context: Recently, the Travel and Tourism Development Index (TTDI) 2024 was released. 

Key Findings from the 2024 TTDI Report

  • Published by: World Economic Forum (WEF).
  • TTDI Rank 2024: India is ranked 39th out of 119 countries in (TTDI) 2024 by the World Economic Forum (WEF).
  • Previous Rank: In the 2021 index, India was ranked 54th, but after a revision in WEF’s methodology, India’s rank for 2021 was adjusted to 38th.
  • Areas of Improvement: India’s scores improved in three key areas:
    • Prioritization of Travel & Tourism
    • Safety & Security
    • Health & Hygiene
  • Domestic Tourist Visits (DTVs)
    • 2023 Data: India recorded 2,509.63 million DTVs (provisional) compared to 1,731.01 million in 2022.
    • Job Creation: In the 2022-23 period, tourism created 76.17 million direct and indirect jobs, up from 70.04 million in 2021-22.

Initiatives to Boost Foreign tourist arrivals (FTAs)

  • Promotional Steps:
    • Focus on adventure and niche tourism.
    • Simplified e-visa processes.
    • A 24/7 multilingual helpline for tourists.
  • Launch of Paryatan Didi and Paryatan Mitra: Introduced on World Tourism Day 2024 to enhance tourist experiences in India.

Chenchus Tribe

Chenchus Tribe

Context: The Chenchus of Penukumadugu, traditionally hunter-gatherers, who lived in the dense Nallamala forests of Andhra Pradesh face dwindling employment opportunities under MGNREGA

About Chenchus Tribe

  • The Chenchus are a small, migratory tribal community.
  • Predominantly found in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, 
  • These are among the 12 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in Andhra Pradesh.

Lifestyle and Occupation

  • The Chenchus traditionally depend on hunting and gathering for sustenance rather than agriculture.
  • They are known for their skills in bamboo cutting and honey collection..
  • They mainly cultivate tobacco, maize, and millet but rely heavily on natural resources for their diet.
  • Many Chenchus have moved towards agricultural and forest work due to the influence of non-tribal communities

Demographics and Language

  • The Chenchus numbered approximately 59,000 at the beginning of the 21st century.
  • They predominantly speak Telugu, a Dravidian language, and have distinct dialects such as Chenchucoolam and Chenswar.
  • Their physical characteristics include being shorter in stature, with a flat nose and wavy black hair.
  • Social Structure and Family
    • Chenchu families are typically small.
    • Men and women enjoy equal status.
    • They practice exogamous marriages, allowing individuals to choose their partners freely.

 

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Recently, The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare released the National Health Account (NHA) estimates for the fiscal years 2020-21 and 2021-22.

National Health Account Estimates

  • The reports are the 8th and 9th editions of NHA estimates for 2020-21 and 2021-22.
  • The reports provide a detailed view of healthcare spending in India.

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Key Findings of NHA Estimates for 2020-21 and 2021-22

National Health Account

  • Government Health Expenditure (GHE) Growth

    • Government spending on healthcare has steadily increased.
    • GHE as a share of GDP rose from 1.13% (2014-15) to 1.84% (2021-22).
    • GHE as part of General Government Expenditure (GGE) grew from 3.94% to 6.12% in the same period.
    • In per capita terms, GHE tripled from Rs. 1,108 (2014-15) to Rs. 3,169 (2021-22).
    • Between 2020-21 and 2021-22, GHE increased by 37% due to the COVID-19 response.

National Health Account

  • Decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE)

    • OOPE decreased from 62.6% of Total Health Expenditure (THE) in 2014-15 to 39.4% in 2021-22.
    • This decline reflects increased public spending, reducing the financial burden on households.
  • Increase in Government Share in Total Health Expenditure

National Health Account

    • Government’s share in THE increased from 29% (2014-15) to 48% (2021-22).
      • This indicates growing reliance on public health services.
    • Total Health Expenditure (THE) in 2020-21 and 2021-22

      • THE in 2020-21 was Rs. 7,39,327 crores, representing 3.73% of GDP.
      • In 2021-22, THE rose to Rs. 9,04,461 crores, or 3.83% of GDP.
  • Growth in Social Security Expenditure (SSE) on Health

    • SSE on health rose from 5.7% of THE (2014-15) to 8.7% (2021-22).
      • This growth reduces the financial risks for individuals accessing healthcare.

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About National Health Account (NHA) Estimates

  • It is prepared by National Health Accounts Technical Secretariat (NHATS) under the Union Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
  • NHA estimates provide insights into India’s healthcare spending patterns.
  • Adheres to global SHA 2011 standards for accurate data comparison.
  • Regular updates reflect changes in India’s healthcare policies and system.

    • Current Health Expenditure (CHE) accounted for 89.73% in 2020-21 and 87.32% in 2021-22.
    • Capital expenditure in healthcare grew from Rs. 75,910 crores in 2020-21 to Rs. 1,14,701 crores in 2021-22.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has begun working on a National Agriculture Code (NAC), similar to the National Building Code and National Electrical Code.

National Agriculture Code

About National Agriculture Code (NAC)

  • A comprehensive code of standards for various agricultural practices.
  • Developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
  • NAC will cover the entire agriculture cycle and provide guidance for future standards, with two parts:

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

  • The BIS is the national body that  sets standards for agriculture machinery and inputs like fertilizers and pesticides.
  • Establishment: 1986
  • Headquarter: Manak Bhawan, Old Delhi

    • General principles for all crops.
    • Crop-specific standards for crops like paddy, wheat, oilseeds, and pulses.
  • It will serve as a guide for farmers, agriculture universities, and field officials.

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Key Features of the NAC

  • Covers all aspects of agriculture, including crop selection, land preparation, irrigation, soil health, plant health, harvesting, processing, storage, and sustainability.
  • Includes standards for input management, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and weedicides.
  • Addresses emerging areas like natural farming, organic farming, and IoT.
  • Provides guidance for farmers, agriculture universities, and officials.

Objectives of the National Agriculture Code (NAC)

  • Provide Clear Recommendations: Create a national code with guidelines for farming practices, considering different climate zones, crop types, and the country’s diverse farming conditions.
  • Encourage Quality in Farming: Help policymakers, agriculture departments, and regulators include NAC standards in their schemes, policies, and regulations to improve quality in Indian agriculture.
  • Guide for Farmers: Offer a simple guide to help farmers make better decisions in their farming activities.
  • Combine Existing Standards: Link existing Indian standards with recommended farming practices to ensure they work together smoothly.
  • Focus on Modern Farming: Cover modern topics like SMART farming, sustainability, traceability, and keeping records to support efficient and eco-friendly farming.
  • Support Learning and Training: Help agriculture extension services and organizations run training programs to teach farmers and spread better farming practices.

Timeline for NAC

  • BIS has formed working panels for specific areas, including university professors and R&D organizations.
    • BIS plans to train farmers on NAC standards, with universities organizing training programs.
  • The tentative deadline for the NAC is set for October 2025.
  • BIS has initiated the development of Standardized Agriculture Demonstration Farms (SADFs) in selected agricultural institutes.

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What is Standardized Agriculture Demonstration Farms (SADF)?

  • SADFs are experimental sites to test and implement agriculture practices and new technologies based on Indian Standards.
  • BIS plans to collaborate with agricultural institutes through Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) to develop these farms.
  • 10 prominent agriculture institutes have been identified, with two MoUs already signed, including one with GBPUAT in Pantnagar.

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

  • BIS is the official body responsible for setting standards in India.
  • Formation: It was formed under the BIS Act of 2016 to oversee and ensure uniformity in standards.
  • Main Functions: BIS focuses on standardization, marking, and quality certification of products.
  • Purpose: The goal is to promote consistent quality in goods and related activities across the country.

Recently, the Prime Minister has introduced a Unified Genomic Chip for cattle, along with indigenous technology for sex-sorted semen production.

About Unified Genomic Chip For Cattle

  • It is a technology designed to revolutionise the livestock breeding industry. 
  • It’s a microchip that analyses the genetic makeup of animals, providing valuable insights into their traits, health, and potential offspring.
  • Developed by: Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD)  under Ministry of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries.
  • Two Versions: The chip comes in two versions

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IndiGau Chip

  • Recognized as India’s first Cattle Genomic Chip, focused on conserving pure varieties of indigenous cattle breeds.
  • Global Significance: It is the largest cattle genomic chip in the world.
  • Developed by: National Institute of Animal Biotechnology (NIAB), Hyderabad in 2021.
  • Goal: To preserve our indigenous breeds with superior characteristics.

    • Gau Chip: Designed for Cattle
    • Mahish Chip: Designed for Buffalo
  • Purpose: Assists farmers in early identification of young, high-quality bulls, enabling informed decisions regarding animal selection.
  • Benefit: Enhances the quality and efficiency of cattle in the dairy sector.

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About Sex Sorted Technology

  • Sex sorting technology for cattle is a method used to separate sperm cells based on their sex chromosomes, allowing farmers to choose the sex of their offspring.
  • Unified Genomic Chip for CattleIndigenous Technology: Recently launched for the production of sex-sorted semen.
  • Purpose: Increases the availability of sex-sorted semen for farmers, enabling the production of predominantly female calves.
  • Technology Use: IVF Technology (Test Tube Baby) is also utilised to expedite the production of desired cattle breeds.
  • DAHD Aim: To produce 1 million doses of sexed semen annually for the Artificial Insemination (AI) program.
  • Significance:
    • Lowers the cost from Rs 1,000 (for imported technology) to Rs 200 per dose.
    • Facilitates quicker production of high-grade female cattle with a 90% success rate.
    • When combined with the Unified Genomic Chip, the sex-sorted semen technology helps reduce the number of non-productive animals, making dairy farming more economically sustainable.

Recently, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) launched a major offensive against the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Khartoum and Bahri in Sudan.

  • 18 months into the civil war, the UN said that more than 20,000 people have been killed and a total of 10,890,722 was internally displaced persons (IDPs) as of October 1.

About Sudan

Sudan

  • Area & Location: Third-largest country in Africa, covering 1,886,068 sq. km. 
  • Borders seven countries and has a coastline along the Red Sea.
  • Border Sharing: 
    • Egypt : North
    • Eritrea: Northeast
    • Ethiopia: Southeast
    • South Sudan: South
    • The Central African Republic: Southwest
    • Chad: West
    • Libya: Northwest

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Major Geographic Regions

  • Nubian Desert (North): Rocky desert area.
  • Clay Plains (Central-South): Fertile for agriculture.
  • Desert with Sand Dunes (West): Includes the vast Libyan Desert.
  • Nile River Valley: Formed by the convergence of the White Nile and Blue Nile at Khartoum.
  • Darfur Plateau & Marrah Mountains: Western Sudan, with the highest peak at Deriba crater (3,042 m).
  • Red Sea Hills: Rugged hills in the east, with fast streams and a narrow coastal plain along the Red Sea.
  • Terrain: Vast plains and plateaus, largely arid with limited vegetation, drained by the Nile River system.
  • History: Largest country in Africa and the Arab League until South Sudan seceded in 2011
  • War Zones: Khartoum, Bahri, Omdurman, Port Sudan, El Fasher, Darfur & Kordofan

Recently, DRDO successfully conducted three flight-tests of the 4th Generation, technically-advanced miniaturised VSHORADS at the Pokhran Field Firing Ranges in Rajasthan.

About Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS)

Very Short Range Air Defence System

  • The 4th Generation Man Portable Air Defence System (MANPAD) designed to counter low-altitude aerial threats.
  • Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

Key Features of Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS)

  • Range: Effective up to 6 km.
  • Seeker: Equipped with a dual-band Infrared Imaging (IIR) seeker for precise target tracking.
  • Propulsion: Uses a dual-thrust solid motor for enhanced performance.
  • Miniaturised Reaction Control System (RCS): Ensures improved manoeuvrability during flight.
  • Portable Design: Lightweight, allowing for quick deployment in difficult terrains.
  • Engagement Scenarios: Demonstrates hit-to-kill capability in various scenarios, including approaching, receding, and crossing aerial threats.

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Significance in Security

  • Provides short-range air defence to protect ground forces and critical assets against helicopters and low-flying aircraft.
  • Enhances India’s self-reliance under the Atma Nirbhar Bharat initiative by involving Development cum Production Partners (DcPP) for rapid production.
  • Contributes to the modernization of India’s armed forces, equipping them with state-of-the-art technology for better defence against aerial threats.

The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) newly reconstituted Monetary Policy Committee (MPC), which is scheduled to meet from October 7-9, is likely to keep the repo rate  unchanged at 6.5 per cent. 

  • This would be the tenth consecutive monetary policy when the repo rate would have been left untouched.

About Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

  • Mission: To determine the benchmark policy interest rate (repo rate) with the goal of maintaining inflation within a specific target while fostering economic growth.
  • Framework: Established to maintain price stability under a formal structure, while also pursuing economic growth objectives.
    • Formed based on the Urjit Patel Committee recommendation..
  • Provision for MPC: Established under Section 45ZB of the amended RBI Act, 1934
    • First constituted on September 29, 2016.

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  • Composition: It has 6 members including the Chairman.
    • 3 members from the RBI.
    • 3 government-nominated external members.
      • Three new external members Ram Singh, Saugata Bhattacharya, and Nagesh Kumar, have been appointed replacing previous members whose tenures ended in early October 2024.
    • The Governor of the RBI serves as the ex-officio Chairman.
  • Meeting Frequency: The MPC is required to meet at least four times a year.
  • Quorum: A minimum of four members is required for a valid meeting.
  • Voting: Each member has one vote.
    • In case of a tie, the Governor has a second or casting vote.
  • Statement of Vote: Each member must submit a statement explaining the reasons for their vote.
  • Monetary Policy Report: The RBI issues a Monetary Policy Report every six months, explaining the origins of inflation and providing inflation estimates for the next 6-8 months.

The Indian Air Force (IAF), which is short of Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) aircraft,  is looking at the procurement of 12 aircraft under two different programmes.

More about the Procurement

  • Program 1: Six additional Embraer-based AEW&C systems (Netra Mk1A).
  • Program 2: Six new AEW&C Mk2 systems, based on Airbus A-321 aircraft (under development by DRDO).

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About AEW&C

  • The AEW&C system is an indigenously developed & produced airborne surveillance system by the Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
    • It is mounted on aircrafts for scanning and surveillance.
  • Enables operators to identify and assess threats and guide interceptors for neutralization.
  • Net-centric system with command and control functions providing information to ground units and integrating data to form a composite picture of the environment.
  • Airborne Early Warning and ControlActs as a command center for operators to select, command, and guide interceptors efficiently.
  • Follow-on Order: Netra Mk1A
    • Aircraft: Embraer-based AEW&C system (akin to existing Netra systems).
    • Coverage: 240-degree airspace coverage.
    • Features:
      • Indigenous Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar.
      • Detects and tracks enemy aircraft, UAVs, and more.
      • Functions as a net-centric command and control system, guiding interceptors for threat neutralization.
    • Current Status: Three in service, six more planned.

Network for Electromagnetic Surveillance and Tracking of Aerial Objects (NETRA)

  • Netra is an airborne early warning and control (AEW&CS) system developed by the Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian Air Force (IAF)
  • Purpose: To detect and track aerial objects, including aircraft, drones, and balloons, at long ranges.
  • Technology: Employs advanced radar systems and artificial intelligence to provide real-time surveillance.
  • Capabilities: Can detect and track objects at altitudes up to 10,000 kilometers and distances of 300 kilometers.

    • Modifications: Minor upgrades; procurement from Embraer with modifications by DRDO-CABS.

About CABS

  • It is Laboratory of DRDO in Bangalore.
  • Provide cost effective solutions for Airborne Surveillance Systems for various services
  • It is a Nodal agency to develop complex airborne system of systems
  • Also developing an  Identification Friend and Foe (IFF) interrogators for Tri-services

    • Existing System: Netra AEW&C:
      • Mounted on Embraer aircraft; developed by DRDO-Centre For Airborne Systems (CABS).
  • New System: AEW&C Mk2
    • Aircraft: Airbus A-321.
    • Coverage: 300-degree airspace coverage.
    • Features:
      • Modified by Airbus, with radar and systems developed by DRDO.
      • Designed to enhance situational awareness, including low-flying targets and high-altitude threats.
    • Current Status: Contract negotiations are ongoing.

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Other warning and Control system used by India

Phalcon AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System):

  • It is an Israeli radar system used for air defence.
    • The radar uses an active electronically scanned array (AESA) to electronically steer a beam, which allows it to provide 360-degree coverage without the need for a rotodome.
  • The Indian Air Force (IAF) has three Israeli EL/M-2090 Phalcon AWACS.
  • It’s mounted on Russian-origin Ilyushin-76 transport aircraft and is sometimes called an “eye in the sky” because of its surveillance capabilities.
  • Detection: Can detect, track, and identify low-flying aircraft at distances of up to 370 kilometres.

Recently, the Indian PM inaugurated the Banjara Virasat Museum in Poharadevi at Washim,  Maharashtra.

  • The Prime Minister also paid floral tribute to the memorials of Banjara leaders Sant Sevalal Maharaj and Sant Ramrao Maharaj.
  • He also played the Nangara, a key musical instrument of the Banjara culture.

About Banjara Virasat Museum

  • Display at Museum: The museum features 13 galleries showcasing the community’s legacy through portraits of Banjara leaders, historical movements, and artefacts that depict their way of life.
  • Aims: 
    • To safeguard the rich cultural heritage of the Banjara community.
    • To establish Poharadevi as a prominent cultural and religious destination.

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The Banjara Community

  • The Banjara community, often referred to as Gypsies, has a rich and vibrant history rooted in nomadic traditions. 
  • Derived from the words “Vanaj (to trade) and “Jara” (to travel), their nomadic lifestyle played a crucial role in connecting villages and providing essential supply.
  • Geographical Spread: The Banjara community has deep roots in Rajasthan and is now spread across various states, known by different names such as Lambada or Lambadi in Andhra Pradesh, Lambani in Karnataka, Gwar or Gwaraiya in Rajasthan, and more. 
  • Language: Their unique language, “Gorboli” or “Gor mati Boli,” falls under the Indo-Aryan language category.

Nangara

Banjara Virasat Museum

The nangara is a unique and essential musical instrument closely associated with the Banjara community

  • Material: Nangaras can be made from various materials, including wood, metal, or even goat or buffalo skin.
  • Cultural Significance: It is often played during celebrations, rituals, and social gatherings of the Banjara Community.
  • Accompaniment: The nangara is often used to accompany singing, dancing, and storytelling.
  • Symbol of Identity: The nangara serves as a symbol of Banjara identity and heritage. It is a reminder of their nomadic lifestyle and rich cultural traditions

Historical Significance

  • Resistance Against British Rule: The Banjara community played a significant role in resisting British attempts to seize their lands and force them into labour.
  • Legal Challenges: Despite their resistance, the Banjara community faced legal challenges, being listed under the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871 They were eventually denotified in the 1950s.
    • But were later listed under the Habitual Offenders Act in 1952.

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Sant Sevalal Maharaj

Banjara Virasat Museum

  • Birth and Origin: Born on February 15, 1739, in Surgondankoppa, Karnataka, Sant Sevalal Maharaj was a prominent figure in the Banjara community.
  • Social Reformer and Spiritual Teacher: He is revered as a social reformer and spiritual teacher who played a crucial role in uplifting the Banjara community.
  • Widespread Influence: With a following of around 10-12 crore Banjara people across India, his teachings and influence extended far and wide.
  • Serving Nomadic Tribes: Sant Sevalal Maharaj travelled extensively with his Ladeniya Troup to serve forest dwellers and nomadic tribes.
  • Ayurveda and Naturopathy Expertise: His knowledge of Ayurveda and Naturopathy helped dispel myths and superstitions, leading to reforms in tribal lifestyles.
  • Impact on Banjara Community: The Banjara community, settled across various states with different names, abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and established permanent settlements called Tandas, influenced by Sant Sevalal Maharaj’s teachings.

A team of history and archaeology scholars from the University of Mysore have embarked on an excavation of megalithic burial sites in Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka

Doddalathur Megalithic Burial Site

  • Location: The megalithic site is located in a small valley formed by the Male Mahadeshwara Hill ranges.
  • It dates back to the Megalithic-Iron Age (1200 BCE to 300 CE).
  • The site features burials marked by large stone boulders in circular arrangements.
  • Discovery: In 1961 by C Krishnamurti of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

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About the Current Excavation

  • Objective:
    • To explore megalithic-iron age culture in southern Karnataka.
    • To gather scientific dating and cultural insights from the site.
  • The department previously excavated the nearby habitation-cum-megalithic burial site of Budipadaga, 20 km from Doddalathur, in 2021 and 2022.

Aspect Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic
Period 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 BCE 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE 8,000 BCE to 3,000 BCE
Habitat Caves, temporary shelters, open plains Semi-permanent camps near water sources Permanent settlements, farming villages
Key Findings Stone tools (e.g., hand axes), cave art, early fire usage Microliths (small stone tools), bone tools, art (petroglyphs) Agricultural tools, pottery, domesticated plants and animals
Lifestyle Hunter-gatherers, nomadic lifestyle Transition to more sedentary life, seasonal migration Farming, animal husbandry, social stratification, trade

About Megaliths

  • A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones.
  • They were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials
  • The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500 BC – 200 AD).
  • Origin: As megalithic societies were preliterate, the racial or ethnic origins of the megalithic people are thus difficult to pin down.
  • Geographical Coverage: Though megalithic sites are found all across India,  they are concentrated mostly in peninsular India. 

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Types of Megaliths

  • Underground Components:
    • Pit Burials: Unlined pits where one or more bodies are buried.
    • Cist Burials: Stone-lined rectangular graves often used for burials.
    • Urn Burials: Terracotta urns used to hold the mortal remains.
    • Megalithic Burial SiteSarcophagus Burials: Terracotta receptacles, often with lids, sometimes shaped like animals.
  • Surface Components:
    • Menhirs: Large, unshaped stones or minimally altered boulders, used as markers or memorials.
    • Boulder Circles: Circular arrangements of rocks or boulders, marking burial sites.
    • Cairns: Mounds of earth, often covering burials or other structures.
    • Dolmenoid Cists: Partially underground stone structures with a capstone.
    • Dolmens: Freestanding stone structures with a large capstone placed on upright stones.
  • These elements form an important part of ancient burial practices and memorial structures found in various archaeological sites worldwide.
  • Some of the significant Megalithic Burial sites are mentioned in the following table.

State Burial Sites Features/Components Found
Jharkhand Seraikela Megalithic burials, large stone structures, urn burials, associated with iron age tools and artifacts.
Uttarakhand Deodhoora (Almora district) Early human habitation, rock shelters, and megalithic burial remains.
Uttar Pradesh Koldihwa (Belan Valley), Banda, Mirzapur, Prayagraj, Varanasi Chalcolithic materials, evidence of early agricultural practices, copper tools, and pottery.
Kerala Thrissur, Kunnattur Megalithic burial sites with Topikal, urn burials, stone circles, dolmens, and pottery artefacts.
Kashmir Waztal, Burzahom, Brah Burzahom: Pit dwellings, Neolithic to Megalithic transition, animal bones, tools, and ceramics.
Karnataka Maski, Hallur, Chandravalli, Hire Benakal, Coorg, Heggadehalli, Brahmagiri Megalithic dolmens, cist burials, iron tools, pottery, skeletal remains, evidence of early agriculture.
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda Buddhist relics, stupa remains, Megalithic burials, urn burials, stone tools, and pottery.
Maharashtra Junapani, Khapa, Mahurjhari, Naikund (near Nagpur), Pune Megalithic burials, stone circles, urn burials, copper and iron tools, skeletal remains, pottery, and beads.
Tamil Nadu Adichanallur, Sanur, Kodumanal, Perumbair Urn burials, iron implements, pottery, skeletal remains, and evidence of trade with ancient civilizations.

Recently, the Supreme Court struck down numerous rules from state prison manuals that date back to the colonial era.

Supreme Court Strikes Down Discriminatory Prison Rules Reinforcing Caste Bias

  • A plea was filed by a journalist which pointed out discriminatory prison rules in states such as Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
  • These rules reinforced social hierarchies and targeted marginalised groups, particularly those historically labelled as “criminal tribes” during British colonial rule
  • The Supreme Court of India ruled against those rules in state prison manuals that discriminated based on caste and opined that they violated the fundamental rights of prisoners.

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Reasons for the Supreme Court’s Decision to Strike Down Discriminatory Prison Rules

  • Caste-Based Labor Division: The Supreme Court  highlighted that the existing rules assigned prison work in ways that perpetuates caste-based labour divisions and reinforce social hierarchy. Example: 
    • Madhya Pradesh Jail Manual, 1987: This manual specifically assigned latrine cleaning duties to prisoners from the ‘Mehtar’ caste, a Scheduled Caste community. 
    • West Bengal Jail Code Rules, 1967: Food should be cooked and delivered to prisoners by cooks of a “suitable caste,” supervised by a jail officer.
  • Perpetuation of Stereotypes: Prison manuals continue to perpetuate negative stereotypes against denotified tribes through the classification between habitual and non-habitual criminals.
    • Example: In Madhya Pradesh, denotified tribe members can be labelled as habitual criminals subject to the discretion of the State Government.
      • In states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, individuals may be deemed habitual criminals based on habits or associations, even without a prior conviction.
  • Violations of Fundamental Rights in Prison Manual Rules: 
    • Right to Equality (Article 14): The court emphasised that caste should only be a basis for classification when it aims to benefit victims of caste discrimination.
      • Segregating prisoners by caste reinforces divisions and deprives them of equal opportunities for assessment and rehabilitation.
    • Right Against Discrimination (Article 15): The manuals were found to directly and indirectly discriminate against marginalised communities.
      • Assigning cleaning tasks to marginalised castes while reserving cooking for higher castes perpetuates stereotypes resulting in indirect discrimination.
    • Abolition of Untouchability (Article 17): The notion that an occupation is considered as “degrading or menial” is an aspect of the caste system and untouchability”.
    • Right to Life with Dignity (Article 21): These discriminatory prison rules hinder the reform of marginalised prisoners and deny them dignity, violating their fundamental rights.
    • Prohibition of Forced Labour (Article 23): Imposing labour or work, which is considered impure or low-grade, upon the members of marginalised communities amounts to “forced labour” under Article 23.

Supreme Court’s Ruling

  • Unconstitutionality of Provisions: The Supreme Court declared all provisions and rules in question as unconstitutional, emphasising the need for equality and dignity for all prisoners.
  • Revisions Required: The Court directed all states and union territories to revise their prison manuals within three months.
  • Model Prison Manual Updates: The Supreme Court also instructed the central government to amend the Model Prison Manual 2016 and the draft Model Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2023, to address caste discrimination within the same timeframe.
  • Directive to District Legal Services Authorities and the Board of Visitors:  The Supreme Court directed the District Legal Services Authorities and the Board of Visitors established under the Model Prison Manual 2016 to conduct inspections and determine if caste-based discrimination continues within prison systems.
    • They will submit a joint inspection report to the SLSAs (State Legal Services Authorities), which will compile it and forward it to NALSA (National Legal Services Authority). 
    • NALSA will file a joint status report with the Supreme Court regarding the suo motu writ petition.

Issues Related to Prisons in India

  • Challenges of Uniform Prison Management: Prisons are a state subject and therefore, having uniform prison management is a difficult issue.
  • Pendency of Cases: Over 4.7 crore cases are pending in Indian courts as of 2022.
  • Colonial Nature and Obsolete Laws; The Indian criminal justice system is based on laws mostly established during British colonial rule.
    • The relevance of these 19th-century laws is increasingly questioned in the modern context
  • Inhumane Behaviour Behind Bars: There are concerns about the indifferent and inhumane treatment of prisoners by staff.
    • Instances of custodial rapes and deaths highlight serious violations of human rights.
    • Third degree tortures in prison remain unnoticed many times.
  • Overcrowding: Many Indian prisons are overcrowded, exceeding their designed capacity.
    • The national average occupancy rate in prisons across India is 130% as per the Standing Committee Report on Prison Conditions, Infrastructure, and Reforms, 2023.
    • The highest overcrowding rates were observed in district prisons (148 percent), followed by central prisons (129 percent) and sub-prisons (106 percent)
  • Issue of Undertrials: In 2020, about 76% of all prison inmates in the country were undertrials
    • Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979): The Court ordered the release of undertrial prisoners who had spent more time in jail than the maximum punishment for their alleged offences. 
  • Inadequate Staff: The ratio between the prison staff and the prisoners in the Indian prison is approximately 1:7 while in the UK, 2 prison officers are available for every 3 prisoners.
  • Transgender Prisoners: There is a lack of welfare schemes for transgender prisoners in most states and Union Territories as per the report of the Committee on Prison Reforms, 2023.
    • Only 13 states and 2 UT’s have designated a “complaint officer” to address rights violations of transgender inmates, as mandated by the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019.
  • Funding Gaps in Indian Prisons: While the central government provides financial support, state governments manage their own budgets.
    • In 2021-22, the total budget for all prisons was Rs 7,619 crore, with actual spending at only 88% (Rs 6,727 crore).

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Initiatives Related to Prison Reforms in India

  • Model Prisons Act, 2023: The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has developed the ‘Model Prisons Act 2023’ to replace the colonial-era Prisons Act of 1894. 
    • This new legislation aims to transform prison administration by prioritising the reformation and rehabilitation of inmates.
  • National Mission for Justice Delivery and Legal Reforms: With the twin objectives of increasing access by reducing delays and arrears and enhancing accountability through structural changes.
  • E-Prisons Project: Aims to improve prison management efficiency through digitisation.
  • Model Prison Manual 2016: Offers comprehensive information on legal services (including free services) available to inmates.
  • National Legal Services Authority (NALSA): Established under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
    • Focuses on providing free and competent legal services to underprivileged sections of society through a nationwide network.
  • National Policy on Prison Reforms and Correctional Administration (2007): Drafted by the Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D).
    • Aims to ensure humane treatment of prisoners and improve prison management through better infrastructure and rehabilitation programs.

Way Forward

  • Prisons should be viewed as rehabilitative spaces rather than mere punitive facilities: This can be achieved by focusing on reintegration programs that prepare inmates for successful societal re-entry, thereby reducing recidivism rates.
  • Promoting Plea Bargaining: The introduction and promotion of plea bargaining can provide a valuable mechanism for reducing the burden on courts and tackle the issue of Overcrowding in Prisons.
  • Enhancing Prison Management
    • Providing adequate training and resources for prison staff to improve operations.
    • Implementing effective monitoring and accountability systems.
    • Ensuring basic amenities for inmates, including access to clean drinking water, sanitation, and medical facilities.
  • Women Prisoners: Special attention is needed for pregnant women, including allowing childbirth outside prison and providing proper prenatal and postnatal care.
    • The Standing Committee recommended extending the duration for infants to stay with mothers in prison from six to twelve years.
  • Transgender prisoners: There should be separate infrastructure facilities, such as separate wards, for transgender prisoners. 
    • Transgender prisoners should be allowed to choose doctors for examination to ensure proper placements in prisons and prevent misgendering.
  • Others: 
    • Strengthening Undertrial Review Committee (UTRC) Mechanism: It assesses the release of undertrial prisoners and convicts eligible for release.
    • Speedy Trials: Implementing faster trial processes is essential to alleviate prison overcrowding.
    • Alternative Sentencing: Legal provisions for alternative sentences such as fines, probation, parole, furlough,admonition are currently underutilised by courts. 
    • Legal Representation: Ensuring at least one lawyer for every 30 prisoners to improve legal access.
    • Fast-Track Courts: Establishing special courts to handle petty offences pending for over five years.

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Recommendations of Various Committees on Prison Reforms:

  • Justice Mulla Committee (1983)
    • All India Cadre: Establish an all-India cadre for prison staff and bring prisons under the Concurrent List.
    • National Policy: Government should formulate a National Policy on Prisons.
    • Alternatives to Imprisonment: Promote alternatives such as community service.
  • Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer Committee on Women Prisoners (1987): Establish separate institutions for women offenders, staffed exclusively by women.
  • Justice Amitava Roy Panel on Prison Reforms (2018-2020)
    • Overcrowding: Maintain a lawyer-to-prisoner ratio of at least one lawyer for every 30 prisoners.
    • Understaffing: Direct the Supreme Court to initiate recruitment for vacant positions.
      • Use of video conferencing for trials.
    • Prisoner Rights: Allow each new prisoner one free phone call daily to family during their first week.

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