A seven-judge Bench of the Supreme Court laid down in a 4-3 majority verdict a “holistic and realistic” test to determine the “minority character” of an educational institution that would ensure special protections under Article 30.

• This landmark judgement addresses longstanding debates surrounding AMU’s establishment, purpose, and the rights of minorities to administer educational institutions.

Supreme Court Revisits AMU’s Minority Status, Final Decision Deferred

• Challenge by the Petitioners: The petitioners had challenged the five-judge Bench judgement in the 1967 case of S. Azeez Basha versus Union of India, which had held that AMU was a Central university and cannot be considered a minority institution. 
• Supreme Court Ruling: The Supreme Court has overruled its 1967 Azeez Basha ruling and stated that an institution’s establishment by statute doesn’t negate its minority status.
• Final Determination of AMU’s Minority Status Deferred: The final determination on AMU’s minority status is deferred to a separate Bench.
  • The question of whether AMU is a minority educational institution must be decided based on the principles laid down in this judgement.

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About Minority Educational Institutions (MEI)

• Definition: “Minority Educational Institution” means a college or an educational institution established and administered by a minority or minorities.
• Article 30(1) of the Constitution of India: Provides for all linguistic and religious minorities a fundamental right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. 

• Enactment of the NCMEI Act: The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) Act has been enacted to safeguard the educational rights of the minorities enshrined in Article 30(1) of the Constitution.
  • The Commission is a quasi judicial body with powers of a Civil Court.
  • It has three main roles namely adjudicatory, advisory and recommendatory.
  • It has both original as well as appellate jurisdiction.
  • The Commission has the power to cancel the minority status of an educational institution granted by an Authority or Commission, on grounds laid down in the Act.
• Protections for Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs):
  • Exemptions under Article 15(5): MEIs are exempt from providing reservations for SCs and STs.
  • Administration Rights: Minority status also allows educational institutions to exercise greater control over their day-to-day administration from student admissions (they can reserve up to 50% seats for minority students) to the hiring of teaching and non-teaching staff.

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Core Essentials of Minority Character Under Article 30(1)

• The majority decision of the Supreme Court listed out the “core essentials” of minority character under Article 30(1).
• Purpose of Establishment: The primary goal of a minority institution should be to preserve the language and culture of the minority group.
  • However, this does not need to be the institution’s sole purpose.
• Admission of Non-Minority Students: A minority institution retains its minority character even if it admits students from non-minority communities.
• Secular Education: Secular education can be imparted at a minority institution without affecting its minority character. 
• Religious Instruction in Government-Aided Institutions: If a minority institution has received aid from the government, no student can be forced to participate in religious instruction;
  • If the institution is fully maintained out of state funds, it cannot provide religious instruction. 
  • However these institutions must still be considered minority institutions.
• National Importance vs. Minority Status
  • The judgement clarified that institutions recognised as nationally significant under Entry 63 of the Union List can simultaneously hold minority status. 
  • The Chief Justice argued that national significance and minority rights are not mutually exclusive.
• Dissenting Opinions
  • The dissenting judges argued that AMU’s recognition as an institution of national importance undermined its minority character. 
  • They also questioned the procedural validity of the 1981 referral by a two-judge bench, expressing concern about procedural overreach in the referral process.

Test laid down by Supreme Court To Determine The Minority Character Of An Institution

• The Supreme Court established a “holistic and realistic” test based on two primary criteria: Establishment and Administration.
• Broader Interpretation of “Established”: The ruling clarified that the term “established” should be interpreted broadly, meaning an institution can retain its minority status even if it is governed by a statutory body or has experienced changes in its legal status over time.
• Establishment Criteria: 
  • Genesis of the Institution: Courts should examine the origin, purpose, and implementation of the idea for establishing the institution.
  • Criteria for Identifying Founders: To establish who founded an institution, courts should:
    • Trace the institution’s conceptual origin.
    • Identify the “brain behind” its establishment, based on letters, communications, and government correspondence.
    • Proof should indicate involvement of a minority individual or group.
  • Predominant Purpose: The institution should primarily aim to benefit the minority community, even if it is not the sole purpose.
    • It is not necessary that education must be provided in the language spoken by the minority or in the religion of the minority.
  • Evidence of Minority Establishment: Private communications, speeches, and documents demonstrating the need for an institution for the minority community and recognition of the “educational difficulties” faced by the communities in question.
  • Implementation Details: Factors like funding sources, land acquisition, and foundational decisions should reflect minority community contributions.
• Administration Criteria
  • Administration by Minority Not Mandatory: The court held that the administration of an educational institution does not need to be handled by the minority community.
    • It was a matter of ‘choice’ for such an institution and it is not compelled to appoint persons from the minority community for day to day administration.
    • The Courts can look at the administrative set-up of the institution.
    • If the administration does not seem to “protect and promote the interests of the minority”, it could be “reasonably inferred that the purpose was not to establish an educational institution for the benefit of the minority community”.
  • Historical Administration Practices: For institutions that were established before the Constitution came into force (like AMU), the majority held that courts must look at how the administration worked “on the date of the commencement of the Constitution” (January 26, 1950) and whether any “regulatory measures” were used to “wrest” control from the founders.

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Implications of the Supreme Court Ruling

• Reinforcement of Minority Rights: The ruling strengthens the constitutional protections under Article 30 for minority educational institutions.
• New Framework for Assessing Minority Status: The Court established a “holistic and realistic” test to determine the minority character of an institution. 
  • It looks at the institution’s origin, its purpose at formation, and how it was administered, especially on January 26, 1950, the date the Constitution came into effect. 
• Impact on AMU’s Minority Status: The ruling clears the way for AMU to be recognised as a minority institution, confirming that it was originally established to serve the educational needs of the Muslim community. 
  • With this Minority Status, the university can provide up to 50% reservation for Muslim students.
  • It need not adhere to general reservation policies applicable to Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC), economically weaker sections (EWS) under Article 15(5) of the Constitution.
  • AMU will have greater autonomy in managing its affairs, including admissions and staff appointments.
• Implications for Other Institutions: It provides a standardised framework for institutions with similar claims to minority status under Article 30 of the Constitution.
  • The Court suggests that any regulatory changes made after the Constitution’s commencement (1950) that alter the institution’s original minority character could be scrutinised.
    • Institutions that underwent such changes may face challenges in maintaining their minority status
• Government Control and Funding: The judgement clarifies that government funding or control does not automatically negate an institution’s minority status, as long as it continues to serve the minority community’s educational and cultural needs. 
  • This could influence how the government interacts with and supports such institutions.

Way Forward

• Clear Guidelines for Minority Institutions: The Government could create a clear legislative framework based on the Supreme Court’s criteria for recognising minority institutions across India.
• Support for Institutional Autonomy: The government should ensure that institutions like AMU continue to benefit from the autonomy to run their educational and administrative programs while ensuring accountability. 
• Legal Clarity on Government Funding and Involvement: A legal framework should be established to clarify the extent to which state funding or other forms of support can be provided without compromising the institution’s minority status or autonomy.

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Conclusion

This verdict is historic as it reshapes the interpretation of Article 30 of the Constitution, and marks a pivotal moment in the ongoing debate over the rights of minority educational institutions in India.

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Recently, The President of India inaugurated the first Asian Buddhist Summit organised by the Union Culture Ministry and the International Buddhist Confederation in New Delhi.

About First Asian Buddhist Summit 2024

• A significant international event aimed at fostering dialogue, promoting understanding, and addressing contemporary challenges within the Buddhist community across Asia.
• Theme: “Role of Buddha Dhamma in Strengthening Asia” – emphasises collective, inclusive, and spiritual development across the continent.
• Key Themes of the Summit:
  • Buddhist Art, Architecture, and Heritage: Celebrated the cultural richness of landmarks like Sanchi Stupa and Ajanta Caves.
  • Buddha Cārikā and Dissemination of Teachings: Focused on Buddha’s journeys and his efforts to spread Dhamma across India.
  • Role of Buddhist Relics and Societal Impact: Discussed how relics inspire devotion, support local economies via pilgrimage tourism, and promote peace and compassion.
  • Buddhist Literature and Modern Philosophy: Showcased the relevance of Buddhist texts in contemporary philosophical dialogue.
  • Buddha Dhamma and Scientific Research: Examined how Buddhist principles are integrated into scientific research to enhance well-being.
• Exhibition: Featured “India as the Dhamma Setu (Bridge) Connecting Asia”, highlighting India’s role in spreading Buddhism.
• Significance for India: Reinforces India’s Act East and Neighborhood First policies, focusing on shared growth and spirituality in Asia.

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Key highlights from the President’s speech

• Unity in Diversity: The President emphasized the unity among the diverse attendees at the summit, who come from different countries, speak different languages, and wear robes of various colors, but all are united in their striving for the Dhamma.
• The Role of Buddha Dhamma in Strengthening Asia: The theme of the summit, focusing on the role of Buddha Dhamma in strengthening Asia, was highlighted as timely and important in addressing contemporary challenges such as conflict and environmental crises.
• The Legacy of Buddha’s Teachings: The President praised the Buddha’s enlightenment as an unparalleled event in history, emphasizing the Buddha’s message of peace, non-violence, and compassion, which continues to inspire billions of people around the world.

• Global Spread and Preservation of Buddha Dharma: The spread of Buddha’s teachings across various regions and cultures (South-East Asia, Tibet, China, and Western countries) was acknowledged, as well as the collective effort to preserve his teachings, including the creation of the Tipitaka and translations by monks from Sri Lanka, Tibet, and China. 
• India’s Commitment to Preservation: The President highlighted India’s ongoing efforts to preserve Buddhist heritage, such as the recent recognition of Pali and Prakrit as classical languages, ensuring financial support for their preservation and revitalization.
• Invitation for Further Exploration: The President extended an invitation for international delegates to visit the National Museum and the Buddhist Circuit to explore India’s rich Buddhist heritage and deepen their understanding of Buddha’s teachings.

Buddhist Philosophy

• The Philosophical Foundations of Buddhism
  • World is transient or ‘Impermanence’ (anicca).
  • It is also soulless (anatta) with nothing permanent in it.
  • Sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
• Thus, following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
• Other Beliefs: 
  • He neither accepted nor denied the existence of God.
  • He addressed worldly issues and was not concerned with debates about the soul (atman) and Brahma.
  • He questioned the authority of the Vedas.
  • Condemned the Varna system and advocated equality. 
• Four Noble Truths of Buddha: Understanding the Essence of Buddhist Philosophy
  • The truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Birth, age, death, separation, unfulfilled wish. 
  • Truth of Origin of Suffering (Samudaya): Arises from desires (Trishna) for pleasure, power & long life.
  • Truth of Cessation of Suffering (Nirvana): Achieving freedom from sorrow.
  • Truth of Path Leading to Cessation of Suffering (Magga), which can be attained through the Noble Eightfold Path or the Middle Path.

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Why Sectarianism, Communalism is challenge to Society

• Threat to National Unity: Sectarianism and communalism divide the nation, weakening social integration and fostering fragmentation.
  • The ethnic clashes between Meitei and Kuki communities in Manipur have led to widespread violence, displacement, and loss of life in 2023.
• Social Disharmony: They fuel hatred, mistrust, and violence, disrupting societal peace.
  • The 2002 Gujarat riots deepened communal rifts, fostering long-term mistrust between Hindus and Muslims.
• Political Manipulation: Politicians often exploit communal divides for electoral gain, deepening societal rifts.
  • Politicians often appeal to “sons of the soil” sentiments to gain favor among indigenous or local populations, emphasizing their right to jobs, resources, or land. Eg.. Maharashtra NavNirman Sena Agitation against Bihar and UP migrants.
• Economic Disruption: Communal violence disrupts trade and investment, hindering economic growth.
  • According to the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) Global Peace Index 2023, the economic impact of violence in India was estimated to be $1.2 trillion in 2022, which is approximately 6% of India’s GDP.
• Human Rights Violations: These issues marginalised minority groups, denying them equal rights and opportunities.
  • The persecution of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar involved violence and the denial of basic human rights.
• Undermines Secularism: Communalism challenges secularism by promoting religious intolerance and discrimination.
  • Recent instances of religious intolerance and discrimination against minority communities in India, such as the targeting of religious minorities in certain states, challenge the principles of secularism and promote communal divisions.

Using Buddhist Principles to Combat Sectarianism

• Emphasis on Compassion (Karuna): Central to Buddhist teachings, karuna promotes empathy and understanding among different groups, reducing divisive tendencies and fostering harmony.
• The Principle of Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Buddhism’s commitment to non-violence encourages peaceful coexistence and dialogue over conflict, countering the roots of sectarian aggression.
• Middle Path Philosophy: The Buddha’s Madhyamaka (Middle Path) discourages extreme views and practices, promoting balanced and inclusive approaches that bridge divides between different beliefs.
• Unity in Diversity: Despite the development of various schools such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, Buddhism upholds respect for different interpretations, teaching that diverse paths can coexist peacefully within a shared spiritual framework.
• Teachings on Impermanence and Non-Attachment: By understanding that all things, including rigid identities and beliefs, are impermanent, individuals are less likely to cling to exclusivist positions that fuel sectarianism.
• Promotion of Right Speech: The Eightfold Path emphasizes Right Speech, which includes speaking truthfully and kindly. This principle fosters constructive communication and reduces rhetoric that can exacerbate divisions.

Buddhist Dhamma and Relevance in the Contemporary World

• Climate Change and Environmental Ethics: The concept of Dhamma promotes living in harmony with nature. 
  • The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) extends to environmental stewardship, advocating respect for all forms of life.
  • Countries like Bhutan have integrated Buddhist principles into national policy, resulting in their commitment to being carbon-negative and prioritizing Gross National Happiness over economic growth.
• Peace and Conflict Resolution: The teachings of non-violence and karuna (compassion) emphasise peaceful dialogue and understanding to resolve conflicts. 
  • The Right Speech component of the Eightfold Path encourages communication that is truthful and not harmful.
  • The Dalai Lama’s advocacy for non-violent approaches to the Tibet issue exemplifies how Buddhist principles can guide peaceful resistance and conflict resolution.
• Mental Health and Well-being: Mindfulness (sati) and meditation practices are central to Buddhism and are recognized globally for enhancing mental well-being and emotional resilience. The Dhamma emphasises managing desires and attachments to reduce suffering.
  • The increasing adoption of mindfulness practices in Western countries, including the use of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in therapy, reflects how Buddhist techniques are applied to address anxiety, depression, and stress.
• Economic Inequality and Ethical Leadership: Buddhism teaches the importance of Right Livelihood and generosity (dana). Economic systems should aim for equitable distribution and discourage greed (lobha).
  • Social enterprises inspired by Buddhist principles focus on shared prosperity. For instance, microfinance models in developing countries encourage inclusive growth and empower marginalised communities.
• Refugee Crisis and Compassionate Policies: The value of karuna calls for compassionate treatment of those in need, such as refugees and displaced persons. This principle emphasises seeing humanity in all and acting with empathy.
  • Initiatives by Buddhist charities and organisations in Asia that provide aid and shelter to refugees, such as those displaced by conflicts in Myanmar, demonstrate Dhamma’s influence on humanitarian efforts.
• Extremism and Social Cohesion: The Buddha’s teachings advocate moderation and the avoidance of extreme views. Metta (loving-kindness) and equanimity (upekkha) encourage harmonious living and the reduction of hatred (dosa).
  • Interfaith dialogues and peace-building efforts in multi-religious societies, such as Sri Lanka’s reconciliation programs post-civil war, embody Buddhist approaches to reducing communal tensions.
• Consumerism and Sustainability: The Dhamma warns against excessive attachment and desire, which drive unsustainable consumer habits. Practicing contentment (santutthi) helps mitigate environmental degradation.
  • Minimalist lifestyles influenced by Buddhist teachings encourage reduced consumption and promote sustainable living, countering modern issues of overconsumption and waste.
• Political and Social Ethics: Leaders should act as Dharmarajas—righteous rulers who prioritise the welfare of their people. Policies should be driven by ethical considerations, promoting justice and fairness.
  • Emperor Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhist principles after the Kalinga War transformed his approach to governance, focusing on non-violence, welfare programs, and moral conduct, which serves as a historical model for modern leadership.
• Education and Moral Development: The Dhamma stresses the importance of education that nurtures both intellectual growth and moral development. The pursuit of knowledge should align with ethical values and empathy.
  • Buddhist schools and monastic institutions in countries like Thailand and Myanmar incorporate teachings that promote not just academic learning but also character building and ethical behaviour.

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India’s Role in Preserving and Promoting Buddha Dhamma

• Historical Custodian of Buddhist Heritage: India is the birthplace of Buddhism, home to sacred sites such as Bodh Gaya (the site of Buddha’s enlightenment), Sarnath (his first sermon), and Kushinagar (his Mahaparinirvana). These sites are preserved and promoted for global pilgrimage, fostering a deeper connection to the Buddha’s teachings.
• Cultural and Diplomatic Outreach: India’s foreign policy, including the Act East Policy, emphasizes cultural diplomacy by promoting shared Buddhist heritage with Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Japan, strengthening regional ties and soft power.
• Support for Buddhist Conferences and Summits: India has hosted and supported major international Buddhist conferences, such as the Global Buddhist Summit, providing a platform for dialogue on applying Buddha Dhamma to contemporary global issues, fostering peace and cooperation.
• Preservation of Buddhist Literature: Initiatives to preserve ancient texts, including digitization and restoration efforts for the Tipitaka and other scriptures, help maintain this shared heritage. Recognition of classical languages like Pali and Prakrit supports scholarly work and dissemination of Buddhist teachings.
• Establishment of Research and Study Centers: Institutions like the Nalanda University (re-established) and Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies focus on Buddhist studies and promote academic exploration of the Dhamma, attracting scholars globally.
• Monumental Efforts in Restoration and Tourism: India actively promotes Buddhist tourism circuits that connect significant historical sites, contributing to the global understanding of the Buddha’s life and teachings and aiding in cultural preservation and economic development.

Conclusion

India continues to play a vital role in preserving and promoting Buddha Dhamma, blending cultural heritage, academic initiatives, and diplomatic efforts. This commitment not only honors its historical legacy but also fosters global peace and unity through the timeless teachings of the Buddha.

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The National Commission for Backward Classes has recommended  to the Union Government the inclusion of at least seven castes and their synonyms from Maharashtra in the Central List of Other Backward Classes.

Process of Inclusion of Caste in the Central OBC List

• Request: The respective State/UT governments make a proposal to include certain castes in the Central OBC list.
  • The Proposal has to be backed with data on the social, economical and educational backwardness of the said communities and forward it to The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC).
• Review: The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) forms a bench to examine the proposal based on social, educational, and economic indicators suggested by the Mandal Commission 1979. 
• Advice: The NCBC then advises the Central Government on inclusion/exclusion of caste or community in the Central OBC list after,
  • The Commission examines the reasons and justifications for backwardness given by the community and conducts public hearings for detailed study of social and educational backwardness.
  • The advice has to be duly signed and authenticated by the Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, and all members of the Commission.
• Inclusion: The NCBC then forwards its decision to the Union government. The Cabinet brings about legislation on approving the advise. If passed by the Parliament and notified by the President, the caste stands included in the central list. 

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The US Federal Reserve recently cut interest rates by 25 basis points, marking its second reduction in 2024. 

Key Highlights of the Reduction

• Interest Rate Reduction: A 25 basis point cut, signaling efforts to manage inflation.
• Future Outlook: The Fed remains open to further rate cuts based on economic performance, with a decision pending in December.
• Political Influence: US Federal Reserve asserted that the Fed’s decisions are unaffected by political changes or external pressures, including any influence from the White House.

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Relation between Interest Rate and Inflation

• Inverse Relation: The relationship between inflation and interest rates is fundamentally inverse, meaning when one rises, the other tends to fall. 
  • This connection is rooted in the Quantity Theory of Money, which indicates that changes in the money supply influence inflation.
  • This inverse relationship helps central banks manage economic stability.
  • By adjusting interest rates, central banks can influence inflation and purchasing power, aiming to maintain price stability and support a healthy economy
• High Interest Rates: When the central bank raises interest rates, borrowing becomes more expensive. 
  • This reduces the money supply, as people and businesses are less inclined to take out loans. As a result, spending declines, leading to lower demand for goods and services, which helps control and reduce inflation.
• Low Interest Rates: When interest rates are low, borrowing is cheaper, leading to an increase in the money supply. 
  • People and businesses are more likely to spend and invest, boosting demand for goods and services. With demand outpacing supply, prices rise, driving up inflation.

Market Reactions and Global Implications

• US Debt and Inflation Concerns: Following the rate cut, US debt interest rates spiked, with analysts warning of inflationary pressures from Trump’s proposed tax cuts and tariff plans.
• Impact on Global Currencies: A lower US interest rate could make investments in other currencies more attractive, especially in emerging markets such as India. 
  • This could drive higher returns for currency carry trades, attracting foreign investments in countries with higher rates.

Potential Impacts on Indian Economy

• Carry Trade Opportunities: As the US rate declines, the difference between US and Indian rates may widen.
  • This creates attractive opportunities for currency carry trades in India, potentially increasing foreign investments in Indian bonds and equities.
• Boost to Global Growth Prospects: Lower rates in the US might stimulate its economy, which could have a positive ripple effect on global growth.
  • India, alongside other emerging markets, may benefit from this potential economic uplift, especially as China contends with a real estate crisis.
• Investor Interest in Emerging Markets: With lower returns on US debt, investors may be drawn to emerging markets like India, seeking higher returns.
  • This trend could bolster Indian equity markets and bring in increased foreign capital.

Domestic Monetary Policy Considerations in India

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has raised rates by 250 basis points since 2020, reaching 6.5% to control inflation.
• However, given the US Fed’s easing stance, the RBI may adopt a cautious approach in its upcoming Monetary Policy Committee meeting on December 4-6. 
• Any delays by the Fed in further cuts could influence RBI’s decisions on its own rate adjustments.

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Global Factors Impacting Indian Economy

• China’s Economic Stimulus: China is expected to launch a significant stimulus package, which may shift foreign portfolio investments (FPIs) away from India.
  • Heightened tensions from Trump’s proposed tariffs on Chinese goods may further incentivize China to adopt aggressive fiscal measures, potentially decreasing India’s appeal to FPIs.
• Bank of Japan’s (BoJ) Expected Rate Hike: The BoJ is anticipated to raise rates in December, which could impact the yen carry trade and potentially increase market volatility.
  • A rate hike could lead to a shift in global investment patterns, influencing India’s equity and currency markets.

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The United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) Adaptation Gap Report 2024, titled Come Hell and High Water, has underscored the urgent need for a drastic increase in climate adaptation efforts, especially through committed financial support at COP29.

Key Highlights of the Adaptation Gap Report 2024

• Rising Demand for Adaptation Finance: Developing countries’ adaptation finance needs are estimated at $387 billion annually by 2030. In 2022, adaptation finance flows to these countries reached $28 billion, an increase from $22 billion in 2021, though still far short of actual needs.The Glasgow Climate Pact goal of doubling adaptation finance from $19 billion in 2019 to $38 billion by 2025 is insufficient to bridge the estimated $187-359 billion adaptation finance gap.

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• Mounting Climatic Threats and Impacts: The report details recent extreme weather disasters, such as the September floods in Nepal and catastrophic summer floods across Africa, which devastated communities with high death tolls and displacement. 
  • These events emphasize the urgent need for financial and strategic adaptation support.
  • Global warming, primarily driven by emissions from developed nations, has intensified these events, placing additional strain on developing countries that have historically contributed the least to greenhouse gas emissions.
• Slow Progress on National Adaptation Plans: While 171 countries have at least one national adaptation planning document, implementation remains slow.
  • Notably, 10 countries lack any formal adaptation plan, and seven of these are conflict-affected or fragile states needing significant tailored support.
  • The report points out that project-based financing has proven unsustainable, with half of the projects unlikely to endure without continued funding.
• New UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience: Established at COP28, this framework sets dimensional targets (e.g., planning, implementation, monitoring) and thematic targets (e.g., agriculture, water, health) to guide adaptation efforts, but lacks the metrics needed to track progress effectively.

Bridging the Adaptation Finance Gap

• The UNEP report stresses the need for innovative financing models beyond high-interest loans, which only increase developing countries’ debt. 
• The Suggested mechanisms include:

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• • Risk Finance and Insurance-Linked Instruments: These financial instruments help countries manage and transfer climate-related risks to investors, providing them with financial protection against natural disasters.
  • Performance-Based Grants and Resilience Credits: These reward countries for achieving specific climate change mitigation and adaptation goals, incentivizing ambitious action.
  • Debt-for-Adaptation Swaps: These financial instruments allow countries to reduce their debt burdens in exchange for investments in climate adaptation projects, freeing up resources for climate action.
  • Payments for Ecosystem Services: These compensate individuals and organizations for conserving and restoring ecosystems, which play a crucial role in climate regulation and biodiversity preservation.
• Reforms within international financial institutions and multilateral development banks could further support this adaptation financing.Shifting to Transformational Adaptation
• To address long-term climate risks, the report advocates for a move from reactive, short-term measures to “transformational adaptation,” focusing on strategic, anticipatory efforts across challenging sectors.
• Transformational adaptation was controversial at COP28 due to the lack of a clear definition, but it was ultimately recognized in the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA). 
  • Developing countries remain concerned about implementation due to capacity.

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The Karnataka Waqfs Board has claimed 17 monuments inside the historic Bidar Fort ( including, the 16 Khamba mosque, 14 tombs of various Bahmani rulers etc) as their property.

Historical Relevance of Bidar City

• Bidar was the capital city of the Bahamani kingdom between 1422 and 1538. 
  • It was shifted from Gulbarga/Kalaburagi  to Bidar (previously known as Muhammadabad) by the ninth ruler of Bahmanis ie. Ahmad Shah I
• Evolution: The city of Bidar has evolved with various dynasties controlling it in the Medieval Period of history starting from, Pre-kakatiya, Tughluq, Bahamani, Barid Shahi, Adil Shahi, Mughal and Nizam. 
• Architectural Style: The architectural landscape of Bidar is an inter mixture of Hindu, Turkish and Persian artisanship.
• The plan of the Bidar city fortification is pentagonal and is built on the brink of the plateau.

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The Bidar Fort

• Built by: It was first built by the Kakatiya ruler-Madhav Varma II in the 10th century. 
  • Evolution: The fort was house to many dynasties including Bahmani Sultanate (1347 -1518) Barid Shahi Dynasty (1527-1619), Mughal Empire (1619-1724) Nizam of Hyderabad (1724 -1948).
• The fort has a three-layered fortification spread across 67 acres with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometres.
• Shape: It is shaped in the form of a rhombus housing palaces, mosques, and courtyards.
• Gateways: The Fort has seven grand arched gates of which the Gumbad Darwaza and Sharaza Darwaza are the most important entrance gates.
  • Other Gates: Named on the basis of their directions, these are, Carnatic Darwaza, Mandu Darwaza, Kalyani Darwaza, Kalmadgi Darwaza, Delhi Darwaza
• Palaces: Both the Takht Mahal and Rangeen Mahal are built around rectangular courtyards. The Fort Complex also houses Gagan Mahal and Tarkash Mahal which are in ruins.
  • Takht Mahal (Throne Place): It is the royal palace built by Ahmed Shah and was the royal residence housing the splendid throne of the Bahmanis where coronations of several Bahamani and Barid Shahi Sultans were held.
  • Rangeen Mahal: It is situated near Gumbad Barwaza, is one of the preserved palaces in the Fort with the walls adorned with Mother-of-Pearl of the finest quality inlaid in jet black stone. The designs of this monument represent the blend of the both Muslim and Hindu architecture. 
• The Solah Khamba Masjid (16 Pillars mosque): It is said to have been built in 1423-24 A.D. by Qubli Sultani.
  • The mosque was originally a ceremonial audience hall and was converted into a prayer space. The roof of the structure consists of a large dome surrounded by small domes.
• The Hazar Kothari: It was built for safe exit of the ruling  family during attack from the enemies. There is an underground hall which leads to the outer wall of the fort.
• The Karez system (Qanat system): It is an ancient Persian technology used for water supply introduced by the Bahmani Sultans in the 15th century that played a crucial role in Bidar’s agricultural prosperity.
• Mahmud Gawan Madrasa: It was built in 1472 by Gawan (prime Minister/wazir) , is considered as one of the oldest and most influential Islamic educational institutions in India. The structure is protected by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI).
  • Residential University: It housed a Mosque, a library, lecture halls and quarters facing an open courtyard. The students were taught Arabic, Persian languages, theology, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics etc
  • The Madrasa was adopted by Shaheen Group of Institutions under the Adopt-a-Heritage scheme and a MoU was signed by ASI in August 2024.
• Ashtur Tombs: The Royal Necropolis of ten Bahmani rulers is situated in Ashtur village near Bidar city. The tomb’s interior is adorned with splendid paintings reflecting Deccani and Asian style of art.
• • The first tomb belongs to Ahmad Shah, followed by tombs of Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah II, Ala-ud-Din Humayun Shah, Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Shah III, Shams-ud-din Muhammad Shah III, and Shihab-ud-din Mahmud Shah II were aligned. 
  • Chaukhandi tomb:It is a majestic mausoleum built in honor of Hazrath Khalil Ullah, the spiritual advisor of Ahmad Shah

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Thuingaleng Muivah, the general secretary of NSCN-IM, issued a strong ultimatum to the Indian government, warning of a potential resumption of armed resistance if the 2015  Framework Agreements are not respected in “letter and spirit”.

Key Sticking Points

• Muivah claims the agreement implicitly recognized a sovereign Naga flag and constitution, both of which remain critical demands for the NSCN-IM accusing India of reneging on these terms.
• Proposal for Third-Party Mediation: Muivah proposed involving a third-party mediator, potentially a foreign entity, as a final effort to break the impasse. He stated that failure to consider this option would prompt the NSCN-IM to resume armed resistance to assert Naga sovereignty.
• Parallel Negotiations with NNPGs:  The Indian government has engaged in separate negotiations with the Naga National Political Groups (NNPGs), a coalition of seven Naga organizations excluding NSCN-IM, since 2017. 
  • This group agreed to a different arrangement, termed the “Agreed Position,” and has recently pushed for the Indian government to finalize an accord based on this understanding within 2024.

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About NSCN

• NSCN is one of the most prominent insurgent groups in the northeastern region of India. 
• Formation: It was formed in 1980 with the merger of two factions, the NSCN (Isak-Muivah) and the NSCN (Khaplang), although these two factions later split again in 1988
• Key Demands: NSCN-IM demands a united ‘Nagalim,’ integrating Naga-dominated areas in Assam, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh, which has been a contentious issue with neighbouring states.

About 2015 Framework Agreement

• The Framework Agreement (2015) is a significant agreement between the Government of India and NSCN-IM towards resolving the long-standing Naga conflict.
• Objective: To find a lasting solution to the Naga political issue, acknowledging the unique history and aspirations of the Naga people.
• Recognition of Naga Identity: The agreement recognizes the unique history and identity of the Naga people.
• New Relationship: It establishes a new relationship between India and the Nagas, going beyond the traditional state-subject relationship.
• Sovereign Powers: While the exact nature of these powers is not explicitly defined, it suggests a degree of autonomy for the Naga people within the Indian Union.
• Framework for Final Settlement: The agreement provides a framework for the final settlement of the Naga issue, which will be negotiated in detail through subsequent talks.

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The recent Anti-Terror Conference 2024 highlighted the crucial role of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in India’s counter-terrorism efforts. 

• The Union Home Secretary emphasised the importance of capacity building at the state level, urging states to send competent officers to the NIA for training and experience at the 
• This move aims to enhance investigative capabilities and foster a robust counter-terrorism culture across the country.

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About NIA

• Established in 2008 under the National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act, 2008 as a counter-terrorism agency.
• It is tasked with investigating offences that threaten India’s sovereignty, security, and integrity, including terrorism, extremism, and organised crime.

Key Roles and Objectives of the NIA

• Investigating Terrorist Activities: It investigates terrorist attacks, plots, and conspiracies.
• Coordinating with State and Central Agencies: The agency coordinates with state police forces and other central agencies to share intelligence and coordinate investigations.
• Capacity Building: The NIA conducts training programs for state police officers to enhance their skills in counter-terrorism investigations.
• International Cooperation: The NIA collaborates with foreign intelligence agencies to track down terrorists and dismantle their networks.

NIA’s Structure

• Director General: The Director General is the head of the NIA.
• Special Directors: Special Directors oversee various departments within the agency.
• Inspector General: Inspector General’s head regional offices and zonal units.
• Superintendent of Police: Superintendents of Police lead investigation teams.
• Intelligence Officers: Intelligence officers gather and analyse intelligence.

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Jurisdictions of NIA 

• All-India Coverage: The NIA operates across the entire territory of India, with its powers extending to all states and union territories.
• Global Reach for Indian Citizens: The NIA’s jurisdiction includes Indian citizens outside of India, allowing the agency to investigate offences committed abroad by or against Indian nationals.
• Government Employees Worldwide: Indian government employees are subject to the NIA’s jurisdiction regardless of their location globally.
• Indian Ships and Aircraft: The NIA’s authority extends to any crimes committed on Indian-registered ships or aircraft, regardless of where these vessels or aircraft may be located.
• Extraterritorial Crimes: The agency has the authority to investigate offences committed beyond Indian borders if they:
  • Involve an Indian citizen,
  • Affect Indian interests,
  • Involve crimes specified under the NIA’s schedule, which includes terrorism and other serious offences against the nation.

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150th Anniversary of the Universal Postal Union

Context: On World Post Day (9 Oct, 2025), the Department of Posts, Government of India released commemorative postage stamps.

• The stamps honor the 150th anniversary of the Universal Postal Union (UPU).
• This year’s World Post Day marks 170 years of India Post’s service.

About the Universal Postal Union (UPU)

• Established : October 9, 1874, in Bern, Switzerland by Treaty of Bern.
• It is the second oldest international organization worldwide.
• It is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that coordinates postal policies among member nations, in addition to the worldwide postal system.
• With its 192 member countries, it serves as a key organization for international postal cooperation and standardizing postal regulations.
• Membership: Any member country of the United Nations may become a member of the UPU.
• India’s Role:
  • India joined the UPU in 1876.
  • India is one of the UPU’s oldest and most active members, contributing to the union’s goal of making postal services accessible worldwide.

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Eighth edition of IBSAMAR

Context: INS Talwar, a frontline stealth frigate of the Indian Navy, reached Simon’s Town, South Africa, on 6 October 2024.

About IBSAMAR VIII Maritime Exercise

• It is a joint maritime exercise involving Indian, Brazilian, and South African Navies. 
• Objective of IBSAMAR VIII
  • Goal: To enhance interoperability and strengthen ties among the participating navies.
  • Focus: Based on Blue Water Naval Warfare, covering Surface and Anti-Air Warfare dimensions. Importance of Multilateral Exercises
• Mutual Trust and interoperability: These interactions foster mutual trust and interoperability among the navies of like-minded countries.
  • They contribute to a peaceful maritime domain and positive maritime environment.
• Strengthening India-South Africa Defence Ties
  • Defence cooperation between India and South Africa has been growing, with initiatives like Operational Sea Training and Submarine Rescue Support.
  • These initiatives followed the 12th Navy-to-Navy talks held in New Delhi in August 2024.

About INS Talwar 

• Commissioning: INS Talwar was commissioned on 18 June 2003.
• Fleet: It is part of the Indian Navy’s Western Fleet, based in Mumbai.

National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC), Lothal, Gujarat

Context: The Union Cabinet approved the development of NMHC at Lothal, Gujarat.

More on the News

• Project Phases: The project will be completed in two phases, with in-principle approval for Phase 1B and Phase 2.

About National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC)

• NMHC is an upcoming tourism complex designed to showcase India’s rich maritime heritage.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterway (MoPSW)
• Main Features and Attractions
  • Recreated Historical Sites: The complex will include replicas of ancient Harappan cities like Lothal and Dholavira to offer visitors a glimpse of these archaeological treasures.
  • Facilities: Planned amenities include museums, amusement parks, educational institutes, hotels, and resorts, making it a comprehensive cultural and recreational destination.
• Significance
  • Cultural and Educational Hub: NMHC will serve as a major center for learning about India’s maritime history, attracting tourists, researchers, and history enthusiasts alike.

Lothal: An Ancient Harappan Site in Gujarat

• Southernmost Harappan Site: Located in the Bhal region of Gujarat, Lothal is one of the southernmost cities of the Harappan civilization.
  • Historical Construction: Believed to have been established around 2200 BC.
• Advanced Maritime Infrastructure: Lothal had one of the world’s earliest dockyards, facilitating trade by connecting the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati River.
• Nomination Date: Lothal was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in April 2014.
  • Global Recognition: This nomination highlights Lothal’s historical importance and advanced urban planning.
• Archaeological Discovery: Discovered in 1954 by archaeologist S.R. Rao, who played a key role in uncovering the site’s significance.
• Important other Sites: Surkotada and Dholavira are also notable Harappan sites in Gujarat, showcasing the region’s rich ancient history.

Additional Reading: National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC)

Project Shaurya Gatha

Context: Project Shaurya Gatha was  launched by Chief of Defence Staff General Anil Chauhan during the Indian Military Heritage Festival (IMHF).

Project Shaurya Gatha

• Initiated by: Department of Military Affairs and the United Services Institution of India (USI).
• Objective: To preserve and promote India’s rich military legacy through education and tourism.
• Key Features:
  • Documenting India’s military history.
  • Promoting tourism to significant military sites.
  • Conducting educational programs to engage youth and the general public.

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Indian Military Heritage Festival (IMHF)

• Inaugurated: The 2nd edition was inaugurated by Chief of Defence Staff General Anil Chauhan on November 8, 2024, in New Delhi.
• Purpose: To enhance public understanding of India’s military heritage, history, and strategic priorities.
• Organiser: United Services Institution of India through its Center for Military History and Conflict Studies (CMHCS).
• Highlights:
• • Panel discussions with experts.
  • Defence exhibitions by DRDO and the armed forces.
  • Participation of NCC cadets and cultural programs.
  • Launch of publications related to military history and security.

Anti-Terror Conference 2024

Context: The Union Home Minister inaugurated the second Anti-Terror Conference 2024 in New Delhi emphasising the Government of India’s commitment to eradicating terrorism with a zero-tolerance approach.

Key Topics from Anti-Terror Conference 2024

• Terrorist Group Prevention and Criminal Connections: Focus on blocking the formation of new terror groups with a “ruthless” approach, as advised by the Union Home Minister.
  • Discussions on how organised crime, especially in northeast India, contributes to terror funding.
  • Concerns over the growing presence of Hizb-ut-Tahrir (HuT) in southern states and international crime syndicates’ links to terrorism.
• Case Studies and Emerging Threats: Analysis of the Rameshwaram café blast case, highlighting the arrest achieved through collaboration between West Bengal police and the NIA.
  • Exploration of new smuggling methods using drones to transport arms and drugs across borders.
• Counter-Terrorism Strategy and Coordination: Emphasis on creating a unified anti-terror structure with better coordination between counter-terrorism teams and local police.
  • Strategies to combat terror financing and dismantle support networks in areas impacted by Left-Wing Extremism.
• Technological Challenges in Terrorism:Examining how terror groups use social media, encrypted apps, VPNs, and virtual numbers for communication.
  • Addressing the threat narcotics trafficking poses to national security.
• Collaboration and Unified Approach: Participants emphasised the need for a standardised anti-terror framework at all levels, highlighting collaboration among central and state agencies as essential to national security.
• National Databases for Anti-Terror Efforts: Utilising the NIA’s national terror database, which includes data on fingerprints, terrorist incidents, narcotics offenders, and human trafficking, to strengthen investigations.
• Call for Skilled Officers: Union Home Secretary urged states to send competent officers to the NIA, which would not only bolster the agency’s capabilities but also enhance investigative practices when these officers return to state service.
• Use of UAPA: Discussions stressed the careful application of UAPA, emphasising its effective and judicious use to avoid misuse.
• Capacity-Building Initiatives: Plans for additional training sessions by the NIA, along with more National Forensic Science University (NFSU) campuses and Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL), were announced to support state-level counter-terror efforts.
• Focus on Financial and Cyber Terrorism: The role of the Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) and Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) was highlighted for managing financial and cybercrimes.

Decline in Brazil’s Amazon Rainforest Deforestation

Context: Brazil’s Amazon rainforest experienced a significant 30.6% decrease in deforestation compared to the previous year.

Key Findings

• Reduced Deforestation:
  • Lowest Level in Nine Years: This marks the lowest level of Amazon deforestation in nine years.
  • Cerrado Deforestation Decline: Deforestation in the Cerrado, Brazil’s vast savannah, also decreased by 25.7%, marking its first decline in five years.

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About the Amazon Rainforest

• Global Significance: The Amazon rainforest is the world’s largest tropical rainforest, crucial for global climate regulation and biodiversity.
• Geographical Spread: It covers over 2 million square miles and spans across nine countries: Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.
• Carbon Sink: It absorbs massive amounts of carbon dioxide, helping to mitigate climate change.
• Water Tower: The Amazon is a vital source of freshwater for South America, influencing global weather patterns.
• Biodiversity Hotspot: It is home to millions of plant and animal species, many of which are unique to the region.
• Indigenous Communities: Numerous Indigenous communities rely on the Amazon for their livelihoods and cultural heritage.
• Continued Challenges: While the recent decline in deforestation is encouraging, ongoing challenges such as climate change, illegal logging, and agricultural expansion continue to threaten the Amazon rainforest.
  • Sustained efforts are needed to protect this vital ecosystem for future generations.
• Additional Reading: Flora and Fauna Biodiversity: Rainforests, River Basins, and Deserts.

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