Context: Shadow banks must review how they lend money as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) strengthens norms and squeezes their credit lines.

RBI’s Report Highlights Risks in NBFCs

• Recently, the RBI increased the risk weights for Non-bank financial companies (NBFCs) (and Banks)  by 25 percentage points to 125% on retail loans.
  •  Risk Weights: Banks need to set aside capital for every loan.
• The RBI’s ‘Financial Stability Report‘ of June 2023 drew attention to NBFCs’ personal loan growth: It rose year-on-year by 31.3 percent while the industry grew slower by 12.7 percent hinting towards issue asset quality.

What is Shadow Banking?

• The shadow banking system consists of lenders, brokers, and other credit intermediaries outside traditional regulated banking.

• Shadow banking is generally unregulated and not subject to the same risk, liquidity, and capital restrictions as traditional banks.
• The term ‘shadow bank’ was coined by Paul McCulley in 2007.
• Examples of shadow lenders include Special Purpose Entities, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Hedge Funds, etc.
• In India, the crisis of the NBFCs that was triggered by the liquidity problems of IL&FS in 2018, has brought back attention to the shadow banking sector.

ALSO READ: BANKING SECTOR OF INDIA

Source: Business Standard

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Context: At COP28, countries will examine how much progress they have made in curbing global warming. According to The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), “It’s a moment to take a long, hard look at the state of our planet and chart a better course for the future.

What is the Global Stocktake?

• The global stocktake is a process for countries and stakeholders to see where they’re collectively making progress towards meeting the goals of the Paris Climate Change Agreement and where they’re not.
• Significance: The results will guide the making of stringent national policies, set more ambitious goals, or financially enable poorer countries to transition to clean, green energy. 
• The Paris Agreement made it mandatory for all countries to set emissions-reduction targets and adapt to the impacts of climate change. This is known as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
• It was decided that countries would assess their progress for the first time in 2023 and every five years.

Also Read: NDC Synthesis Report For 2023: UNFCCC

What is the Global Stocktake Report?

• The UN published a technical report on the first Global Stocktake in September 2023, according to which the global community took some action and made some progress but it was still too little.
• Key Findings: 
• The Paris Agreement has galvanized countries into setting goals and signaling the urgency of the climate crisis.
• Transition to Renewable Energy: Governments must support ways to transition their economies from fossil fuels, and states and communities must strengthen efforts.
  • The share of renewable energy has to be increased, and all ‘unabated fossil fuels’ (for example, coal plants without carbon capture and storage mechanisms) are to be rapidly eliminated.
• Ambitious Targets: It is needed to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by 43% by 2030 and further by 60% in 2035 and reach net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 globally.
• Deforestation and land degradation must be halted and reversed, and agricultural practices critical to reducing emissions and conserving and enhancing carbon sinks must be encouraged.
• Focus on Adaptation: Most current efforts are “fragmented, incremental, sector-specific and unequally distributed across regions.” therefore, the world urgently needs to adapt to the unfolding and future impacts of climate change.
  • Transparent reporting on adaptation could facilitate and enhance understanding, implementation, and international cooperation.
• Priority to loss and damage: Averting, minimizing, and addressing ‘loss and damage,’ requires urgent action across climate and development policies to manage risks comprehensively and support impacted communities.
• Climate finance: It was “essential” to unlock and redeploy trillions of dollars to meet global investment needs, including by rapidly shifting finance flows globally to support a pathway towards low GHG emissions and climate-resilient development.
  • Access to climate finance in developing countries needed to be enhanced.
  • Financial flows needed to be consistent with climate-resilient development to meet urgent and increasing needs.

What is the impact of the Global Stocktake Report?

• The report did resonate in the recently held G20 Leaders Declaration which recognizes the need for increasing finance for the world to transition to a renewable energy economy. 
• The Declaration highlighted the need for USD 5.8-5.9 trillion in the pre-2030 period required for developing countries as well as USD 4 trillion per year for clean energy technologies by 2030 to reach net zero by 2050.

Source: Indian Express

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Context: The Ministry of Railway is inviting expressions of interest from global players to manufacture hydrogen-powered trains in the country based on indigenously developed technology.

Indian Railways Unveils Hydrogen-Powered Train Prototype

• Indian Railways is developing a prototype of a train that will be powered by hydrogen fuel cells, making for a more environmentally friendly locomotive than traditional diesel-powered ones.
• Currently, only Germany commercially operates hydrogen-powered trains, while the US, the UK, France, and Japan are in the testing phase. 

What is the Hydrogen for Heritage Project?

• Announcement in Union Budget: The Finance Minister in her Budget speech in February 2023 announced the ‘Hydrogen for Heritage’ scheme, a plan to operate hydrogen-powered trains on select heritage and hilly routes that are environmentally sensitive.
• Proposed Plan: India’s plan to develop the technology involves the retrofitment of hydrogen fuel cells on diesel electric multiple unit (DEMU) rakes. This prototype is expected to run on the Jind-Sonipat section in Haryana initially.
• Indian Railways has proposed to run 35 hydrogen trains at an estimated cost of Rs 80 crore per train, with ground infrastructure costing Rs70 crore per route.
• Manufacturing cost: one rake of six coaches with hydrogen propulsion is estimated at Rs 80 crore; for ground infrastructure, it is Rs 600 crore.
• Thirty-five train-set rakes (with six coaches each) have been sanctioned for the ongoing financial year for eight sections–Matheran Hill Railway, Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Kalka-Shimla Railway, Kangra Valley, Bilmora Waghai, Patalpani Kalakund, Nilgiri Mountain Railways, and Marwar-Goram Ghat.
• Challenges: According to, the Ministry of Railways the initial running cost of hydrogen-powered trains would be higher, but it would subsequently reduce with an increase in the number of such trains.

What are the Hydrogen-Powered Trains?

• Hydrogen trains basically run on hydrogen fuel cells. These fuel cells combine oxygen and hydrogen to create electricity, which drives the train’s motors.
• Environmental Benefits: Hydrogen trains are more environmentally beneficial than traditional diesel trains as they do not emit dangerous pollutants like nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and particulate.

Also Read: National Hydrogen Energy Mission (NHEM)

Source: Live Mint

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Context: The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), has praised India’s Standards on Millets and accepted its proposal for developing global standards for millets during its 46th session in Rome, Italy. 

More On News:

• India has framed a comprehensive group standard for 15 types of millets specifying eight quality parameters, which received applause at the international meet. 
• The Codex currently has standards for sorghum and pearl millet.

What is the Codex Alimentarious Commission (CAC)?

• Genesis: The Codex Alimentarius Commission is an international food standards body established in May 1963. 
  • It was jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
• Objective: Setting an international food safety and quality standard to protect consumers’ health and ensure fair practices in the food trade.
• Members: Currently the Codex Alimentarius Commission has 189 Codex Members made up of 188 Member Countries and 1 Member Organization (The European Union). 
  • India became a member of Codex Alimentarius in 1964.
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission’s roles and responsibilities:
  • The Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) recognizes Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations as reference standards for international trade and trade dispute settlement.
• Codex Standards/Texts: “Voluntary in nature, Codex standards can be general or specific and are recognized by WTO Agreements as reference standards”
  • General Standards, Guidelines, and Codes of Practice
    • These core Codex texts, typically deal with hygienic practice, labeling, contaminants, additives, inspection & certification, nutrition and residues of veterinary drugs and pesticides and apply horizontally to products and product categories.
  • Commodity standards
    • Codex commodity standards refer to a specific product, although Codex is increasingly developing standards for food groups.
  • Regional standards
    • Standards developed by the respective Regional Coordinating Committees, applicable to the respective regions.

What are the comprehensive group standards set by FSSAI for millets?

• The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India has specified a comprehensive group standard for millets under Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Second Amendment Regulations, 2023.
• 8 quality parameters: 
  • Maximum limits for moisture content, 
  • Uric acid content, 
  • Extraneous matter, 
  • Other edible grains, 
  • Defects, 
  • Weevilled grains, and 
  • Immature and shriveled grains,
  • to ensure availability of good quality (standardized) millets in domestic and global markets.
• The group standard applies to the following millets (15 in Number):
  • Amaranthus (Chaulai or Rajgira), Barnyard Millet ((Samakechawal or  Sanwa or Jhangora), Brown top (Korale), Buckwheat (Kuttu), Crab finger (Sikiya), Finger Millet (Ragi or Mandua), Fonio (Acha), Foxtail Millet (Kangni or Kakun), Job’s tears (Adlay), Kodo Millet (Kodo), Little Millet (Kutki), Pearl Millet (Bajra), Proso Millet (Cheena), Sorghum (Jowar), Teff (Lovegrass), etc. 

Source: PIB

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Context: India was re-elected to the IMO Council (International Maritime OrganisationI) with the highest votes and the council term will be for the biennium 2024-25.

India Re-elected to IMO Council

• The highest votes indicate the government’s determination to strengthen India’s varied contributions to international maritime operations. India’s re-election falls under 10 states with “the largest interest in international seaborne trade.
• The Maritime India Vision 2030 to enhance representation at IMO, India aims to appoint permanent representatives at IMO London.

Also Read: Global Maritime India Summit 2023; PM Unveil Blueprint For Maritime Blue Economy

About IMO

Genesis: The International Maritime Organisation is the United Nations specialized agency responsible for the safety and security of shipping and preventing marine and atmospheric pollution by ships.

History: In 1948 an international conference in Geneva adopted a convention formally establishing IMO (the original name was the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization, or IMCO, but the name was changed in 1982 to IMO).

• The  IMO Convention entered into force in 1958 and the new Organization met for the first time the following year.

Members: IMO currently has 175 Member States and three Associate Members. India has been one of the earliest members of the IMO, having ratified its Convention and joined it as a member state in 1959.

Composition:

• The Organization consists of an Assembly, a Council, five main Committees, and a number of Sub-Committees that support the work of the main technical committees.
• Assembly
• • This is the highest Governing Body of the Organization.
  • It consists of all Member States and meets once every two years in regular sessions, but may also meet in an extraordinary session if necessary.

• • The Assembly is responsible for approving the work program, voting on the budget, and determining the financial arrangements of the Organization. The Assembly also elects the Council.
  • The IMO Council is elected by the Assembly for two-year terms beginning after each regular session of the Assembly.
  • The IMO Council is the Executive Organ of IMO and is responsible for supervising the work of the Organization.
  • The Council performs all the functions of the Assembly (Between sessions of the Assembly), except for making recommendations to Governments on maritime safety and pollution prevention.
  • Recently, IMO has adopted amendments to expand the size of the IMO Council to 52.
• Other functions of the IMO Council 
  • Co-ordinate the activities of the organs of the Organization;
  • Consider the draft work program and budget estimates of the Organization and submit them to the Assembly;
  • Receive reports and proposals of the Committees and other organs and submit them to the Assembly and Member States, with comments and recommendations as appropriate;
  • Appoint the Secretary-General, subject to the approval of the Assembly;
  • Enter into agreements or arrangements concerning the relationship of the Organization with other organizations, subject to approval by the Assembly.

Role Of IMO:

• To promote safe, secure, environmentally sound, efficient, and sustainable shipping through cooperation.

Key IMO Conventions:

• International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS, 1974, as amended.
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto and by the Protocol of 1997 (MARPOL)
• International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers ( STCW) as amended, including the 1995 and 2010 Manila Amendments

Source: PIB

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Context: Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) said that the Solar Wind Ion Spectrometer (SWIS), the second component of the Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX) within Aditya L1, has become operational.

About Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX):

• ASPEX is a scientific instrument dedicated to studying solar wind particles, which are charged particles emitted by the sun and impact the space environment.
• ASPEX comprises two cutting-edge instruments – the Solar wind Ion Spectrometer (SWIS) and STEPS (SupraThermal and Energetic Particle Spectrometer). 
  • The STEPS instrument became operational on September 10, 2023. 
  • The SWIS instrument was activated on November 2, 2023.
    • Solar Wind Measurements: SWIS, with a 360° field of view, successfully measured solar wind ions, including protons and alpha particles.

More About Aditya L1 Mission, 

News Source: Livemint

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Context: The Indian Government has cleared the submission of the country’s Third National Communication (TNC) and Initial Adaptation Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 

India’s Climate Commitment: Fulfilling Convention and Paris Agreement Obligations

• The submission will fulfill India’s obligation to furnish information under the Convention and the Paris Agreement.
• The Third National Communication document itself is yet to be made public. It is based on the National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory 2019.
• India is one among the 26 developing countries that have submitted their communications based on the GHG inventory of 2019 or later years. 
• China submitted its latest communication with GHG inventory of 2014, Brazil in 2016, South Africa in 2017, and Saudi Arabia in 2012.

Also Read: COP28 Approved Agreement on New “Loss and Damage” Fund for Vulnerable Countries

What are the key findings of the Third National Communication?

• Emission Intensity Reduction: India achieved a 33% reduction in its gross domestic product (GDP) emission intensity between 2005 and 2019.
• Non-fossil Fuel Power Capacity: Currently, India has a 41% share of clean power capacity, surpassing the original target of 40% for 2030. The revised target is an ambitious 50% as of 2022.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions (2019): The energy sector contributed 75.81%, the agriculture sector 13.44%, the industrial processes, and product use (IPPU) sector 8.41%, and waste 2.34% to GHG emissions.
• Net National Emissions (2019): India’s net national emissions in 2019 were 26,46,556 gigagrammes of CO2 equivalent, an increase of 4.56% since 2016.
• Carbon Sink Creation: India added a carbon sink of 1.97 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent between 2005 and 2019 towards the NDC target of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes by 2030.
• Climate Finance: India has largely met its commitments through its financial resources and urges developed countries to fulfill the $100 billion climate finance commitment.
• Adaptation Expenditure: Public finance covers most adaptation activities, with an expenditure of 5.6% of GDP in FY 2021-2022, marking an increase from 3.7% in 2015-16.

News Source: DTE

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Context: The International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) proposed 21 safety measures to enhance integrity, transparency, and enforcement in voluntary carbon markets (VCMs).

IOSCO Launches Public Consultation on Carbon Market 

• IOSCO, which groups market watchdogs from Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the United States, launched a 90-day public consultation on a set of good practices for national regulators to apply.
• The announcement was made at the COP28 climate summit in Dubai during a dedicated event.
• IOSCO’s Concerns and Focus: IOSCO expressed concerns about credit quality, double counting, and fraud in the carbon market, prompting the need for closer scrutiny.
• Regulatory Measures: IOSCO suggests regulatory measures such as requiring companies to disclose their use of carbon credits.
• Good Practices: IOSCO advocates good practices including comprehensive disclosures on project development, verification and auditing methodologies, and entities responsible for measurement, reporting, and verification.

What is IOSCO?

• The International Organization of Securities Commissions is the international body that brings together the world’s securities regulators. It is recognized as the global standard setter for the securities sector. 
• IOSCO develops, implements, and promotes adherence to internationally recognized standards for securities regulation. 
• It works intensively with the G20 and the Financial Stability Board (FSB) on the global regulatory reform agenda. 
• IOSCO was established in 1983. Its membership regulates more than 95% of the world’s securities markets.

What are the Voluntary Carbon Markets?

• Voluntary markets are those in which emitters— corporations, private individuals, and others— buy carbon credits to offset the emission of one tonne of CO2 or equivalent greenhouse gases.
• Such carbon credits are created by activities that reduce CO2 from the air, such as afforestation.
• Nature of VCMs: VCMs encompass projects like reforestation, renewable energy, biogas, and solar power, generating carbon credits for companies to offset emissions and achieve net-zero targets.

What is the Difference Between the Voluntary Carbon Market and the Compliance Market?

• Compliance Carbon Market:
  • Regulated by national, regional, or international carbon reduction regimes.
  • Operates under a cap-and-trade system with a limited supply of allowances.
  • Examples include the Kyoto Protocol and the European Union’s emissions trading system.
• Voluntary Carbon Market:
  • Operates independently from compliance markets; entirely voluntary participation.
  • Participants are not mandated to reduce emissions; engagement is driven by social responsibility, shareholder pressure, or PR considerations.

News Source: Business Standard

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Context: Union Minister of Science and Technology addresses faculty and students at the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST) in Mohali, Chandigarh.

About INST Mohali:

• INST Mohali is India’s first Nano-Science Institute dedicated to research and product development in Nanoscience and Technology.
• It is an autonomous research institution under the Society Registration Act, 1960.
• INST Mohali operates under the Department of Science and Technology’s national mission on Nano Science and Technology (NANO Mission).
• It started its activities on 3rd January 2013.
• Research Focus Areas:
• • Agricultural Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine, Energy and Environmental Science, Quantum Materials and Device Physics, Nano Electronics, Microfluidics Based Technologies, Nanobiotechnology.
• Aims: To emerge as a globally competitive research institution, applying nanoscience in agriculture, medicine, energy, and the environment.

What are the objectives of INST Mohali?

• Resource building – Infrastructure and Manpower
• Enhance research activity in Nano Science and Nano Technology
• Training students in the Ph.D. program in Nano Science and Technology
• Generating patents in Nano Science and Technology

About Nanotechnology:

• Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on a near-atomic scale to produce new structures, materials and devices. 
• Applications: It promises scientific advancement in many sectors such as medicine, consumer products, energy, materials, and manufacturing.
• Example: 
  • Electronics: Carbon nanotubes are on the verge of replacing silicon in microchip production, leading to smaller, faster, and more efficient devices. 
  • Biomedicine: Nanomaterials prove advantageous in biomedicine, offering improvements in the early diagnosis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. 

News Source: PIB

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Context: The President of India, paid tributes to Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India on his birth anniversary i.e., on December 3rd, 2023.

About Dr. Rajendra Prasad:

• Birth: Born to Mahadev Sahai Srivastava (a Sanskrit and Persian language scholar) and Kamleshwari Devi on 3rd December 1884 in Ziradei, Siwan, Bihar.

• Known For: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was an independence activist, lawyer, scholar and was an influential leader during the Indian freedom struggle.
  • When India became a republic in 1950, he was elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly and became the longest-serving head of India (for 12 years).
• In 1962, he retired from politics and public life. 
• Death: He died on 28th February 1963 at the Sadaqat Ashram in Patna, at the age of 78.

Education:

• At the early age of 5, under the guidance of a Moulavi, Dr. Rajendra Prasad learned Persian, Hindi, and arithmetic. 
• Higher Studies: He won a scholarship to study at the University of Calcutta and joined the Presidency College in Calcutta. 
• In 1907, he completed his MA in Economics. During his college, he was an active social activist and joined the Dawn Society and the Servants of India Society.
  • After completing his MA, he became a professor of English at the Langat Singh College in Bihar and went on to become the principal.
• In 1909, he pursued his law studies in Kolkata.
  • While pursuing his law studies, he also worked as a Professor of Economics at Calcutta City College.
• In 1915, he passed the examination of master’s in law from the Department of Law, University of Calcutta, and won a gold medal. 
  • In 1916, he commenced his legal career in the Patna High Court.
• In 1937, he completed his Doctorate in Law from Allahabad University.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s Literary Works:

• Satyagraha at Champaran (1922)
• Division of India (1946)
• Atmakatha (1946) 
  • His autobiography written during his 3-year prison term in Bankipur Jail
• Mahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminiscences (1949)
• Bapu Ke Qadmon Men (1954)
• Since Independence (published in 1960)
• Bharatiya Shiksha
• At the feet of Mahatma Gandhi

Dr. Rajendra Prasad and his association with the Indian National Congress (INC):

• As a Volunteer: In 1906, during his student days, he attended an INC session as a volunteer. 
• Member: In 1911, he officially joined the INC (in the annual session held in Calcutta).

Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s Contribution to Constitutional Making:

• President: In October 1934, he was elected President of the INC during the Bombay session.
  • He became President of the Constituent Assembly in July 1946.
  • Committees of Constituent Assembly under his Chairmanship:
    • Ad hoc Committee on the National Flag
    • Committee on the Rules of Procedure
    • Finance and Staff Committee
    • Steering Committee

Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s role in the National Movement of India:

• Champaran Satyagraha: Dr. Rajendra Prasad supported the ‘Champaran Satyagraha‘. 
  • He called for non-cooperation in Bihar as part of Gandhiji’s non-cooperation movement.
  • He toured Bihar, holding public meetings and making heartfelt speeches supporting the movement.
• Left with Law Practice: Dr. Rajendra Prasad gave up his law practice and started a National College near Patna, in 1921 and dedicated himself to the cause of freedom. 
• Action on Boycott: In response to Gandhi’s call for a boycott of Western educational institutions, he dropped his son from school and enrolled him in Bihar Vidyapeeth.
  • Bihar Vidyapeeth was an institution that was developed on the traditional Indian model by him and his colleagues.
• Imprisonment: Being an activist of the Independence movement, he was imprisoned multiple times by the Britishers, such as
  • In 1931, for participating in the Salt Satyagraha Movement.
  • In 1942, for being an active member of the Quit India Movement.

His Humanitarian Actions:

• In 1914, when floods struck Bihar and Bengal, he helped people. 
• In January 1934, after experiencing the earthquake, he set up the Bihar Central Relief Committee and raised funds to help the affected people.

His Legacy:

• President of India: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected unanimously in 1952 as the President of India. 
• He was re-elected in 1957 and remains the only President of India to achieve this feat. 
  • Longest Tenure: Prasad is the only President to serve two full terms and he stayed in office for the longest term of around 12 years.
• During his rule, the Mughal Gardens at the Rashtrapati Bhavan were opened to the public for the first time for about a month, and it has since become a major tourist attraction.
• Bharat Ratna: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was awarded with the nation’s highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna in 1962. 

News Source: Times of India

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Context: This article is based on the news “Manipur: UNLF faction says peace talks with govt a death trap, betrayal of people” which was published in the economic times” Recently, The Union and Manipur governments signed a peace agreement with the United National Liberation Front (UNLF).

Peace Agreement With United National Liberation Front (UNLF)

• Ending hostilities and community concerns: The agreement will cease hostilities between the United National Liberation Front and security forces.
• Peace Monitoring Committee (PMC):  It will be constituted to oversee the enforcement of the agreed ground rules. 
• Factions joining agreement: The peace pact has been joined by around 65 cadres of one of the factions of the United National Liberation Front, led by K. Pambei.
  • These 65 cadres of the Pambei faction entered Manipur during the ongoing ethnic violence. 
  • United National Liberation Front’s alternate faction led by Koireng operating from Myanmar with 300 Cadres stays outside the agreement.
• Historic transition: For the first time, a valley-based Manipuri armed group has agreed to return to the mainstream by abjuring violence and agreeing to honor the Constitution of India.
• Reduction in violence: The central government has signed peace agreements with several northeastern insurgents/rebels, enabling a decline of 73% in violent incidents, 72% in fatalities of security forces, and 86% in civilian killings during 2014-23.

About United National Liberation Front:

• Genesis: The United National Liberation Front was formed in 1964 seeking Manipur’s secession from India and has been operating both within and outside Indian territory.
• Meitei extremist organizations: It is declared unlawful associations under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967.

What factors contributed to the rise of insurgency in Manipur?

• Demand for an Independent State: The militant organizations primarily based in the valley advocated for an independent Manipur.
  • These included the United National Liberation Front, the People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), and the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), which received arms and training from China. 
  • These valley groups operated with a dual purpose of independence from India and warding off Naga insurgent groups.

• Spillover effect from Nagaland: The Naga movement from the nearby state of Nagaland extended into the hill districts of Manipur controlled by the NSCN-IMl(Isak-Muivah faction of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland or NSCN (I-M). 
  • They advocate for Greater Nagaland, a concept viewed in the valley as a potential “threat” to Manipur’s territorial integrity.
• Emergence of Kuki insurgent groups: The Kuki-Zomi groups rose in reaction to Naga aggression against the Kukis. 
  • Thousands of Kukis were rendered homeless after the massacre of Kukis by NSCN-IM in 1993. 

• • Following this, the Kuki-Zomi tribes organized a number of armed factions.
  • Around the same time, similar clashes took place between the Meiteis and Meitei Pangals (Muslims). 
• Emergence of smaller Insurgent groups: The further continuance of insurgency led to the formation of smaller insurgent organizations like the Zeliangrong United Front (ZUF), People’s United Liberation Front (PULF), and other splinter groups.

What are the reasons behind the insurgency in Manipur?

• The Policy Polarisation: While the tribal Kuki-Zo and Naga communities can buy land in the valley, the Meiteis cannot buy land in the hills. 
  • The Kuki-Zo and Naga communities are entitled to reservation under the Scheduled Tribe classification but they feel under-represented in the Assembly of the Meitei-dominated government.
• Ethnic cleansing: The region has seen multiple inter-ethnic conflicts — Kuki-Naga, Meitei-Muslim, Kuki-Karbi, Hmar-Dimasa, and even Kuki-Tamil clashes.
  • Meitei Hindus were converted to Hinduism by religious leaders from Sylhet in pre-partition Bengal leaving the community with a perpetual sense of identity crisis.
• Racial discrimination: Hate crimes against people from Northeast India in metros are treated as isolated incidents and they are neglected in policy discourse and are unacknowledged by the upper-caste Hindu majority of the country.
• Influx of refugees: The rise of Meitei nationalism and insurgency has been influenced by the influx of refugees from Myanmar. 
  • These refugees, sharing a common ethnicity with residents in the border areas of Manipur, often take refuge in the region.
• Efforts to curb poppy cultivation: Government actions, including crackdowns on poppy cultivation in the hill districts and addressing “illegal settlements” in these areas, are another factor behind the insurgency.
• Development deficit: On the Kuki-Zomi and Naga side, resentment is fueled by the significant underdevelopment of their districts, with a majority of the state’s budget allocated to the Imphal valley. 
  • Issues include the lack of infrastructure, such as roads, healthcare, and education, along with the perceived dominance of the Meiteis in the state’s administration, where they hold 40 MLAs compared to 20 tribal representatives.
  • Poor Economic indicators: At Rs 84,345 in 2022, it has the lowest per capita income amongst the eight Northeastern states.

What are the impacts of insurgency?

• Provoking Anti-national sentiments: The valley groups, particularly the United National Liberation Front, have resorted to strikes on various occasions. Ex-August 15 or January 26. 
  • The Meitei groups have solidified the moral code of the valley with ‘laws’ that prohibit wearing Indian clothing, watching Hindi films listening to Hindi music, and watching Meitei films.
• Influencing Public Opinion: Candidates, irrespective of their political affiliations, run for elections with support from insurgent groups, and exert influence on electorate voting decisions.
  • In the previous Assembly election, the KNO president instructed voters to support the BJP and significantly swayed the electorate in favor of the party.
• Deterioration of law and order: The deterioration of law and order in Manipur creates concerns of fringe elements becoming active.
  • The region, with its porous international border with Myanmar, is known for the activity of smugglers, including those involved in drug transportation.
• Shelter to illegal refugees: The insurgents are accused of backing poppy cultivation and providing shelter and protection to Myanmarese refugees who entered the district Churachandpur fearing persecution in their home country by the military junta.

Government Response:

• Imposition of AFSPA: In 1980, the Centre declared Manipur a “disturbed area” and imposed the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) to suppress the insurgency movement.

• Suspension of Operation (SoO) agreement: Various peace talks led to a tripartite SoO agreement between the Centre, the state, and the Kuki-Zomi groups in 2008.
  • The SoO agreement protects the insurgent groups from action by Indian or state security forces in exchange for a halt to the insurgency. 
• Ceasefire agreement: It was agreed between the NSCN-IM and the Government of India (GoI) in 1997.
• Suspension of Operation (SoO) pact: It was signed by the Kuki outfits under two umbrella groups, the Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United People’s Front (UPF) with the GoI and Manipur on August 22, 2008. 

Way Forward: 

• Preventing insurgent activities: The administration needs to be vigilant for possible trouble spots and try to avert any negative incident before it happens. Control over the drug trade requires special attention for this.
• Voluntary Surrender policy: Concerted and deliberate operations must be launched coupled with incentives for those who voluntarily surrender. 
  • Disarming locals in possession of illegal arms is to be done through coordinated actions by the security forces. 
  • For this, each organization’s roles and responsibilities must be clearly defined. 
• Enroll and Invite the Youth for Talks: Multi-layered interaction with youth leaders and other selected youth is needed to ensure Manipur returns to normalcy faster.
•  Unified Command structure: A vibrant, dynamic, and effective Unified Command structure is needed to bring Manipur out of the state of insurgency.
• Role of Civil Society Organisations: Civil society organizations, retired defense personnel, academicians, and intelligentsia will have to demonstrate a shared perspective and commitment to restoring normalcy in Manipur.
  • Neither civil society organizations nor student bodies, which once held significant roles in Manipuri society, actively participate in the dialogue, hindering peace-building initiatives.
• Border management with Myanmar:  It demands a holistic review, especially in the wake of illegal immigration and drug menace. 
• Integrated development policy: The Strategy for the integrated development of the region as part of ‘Act East Policy’ entails the exploitation of its vast natural and human potential, besides accelerating the pace of road, rail, and marine connectivity with South East Asia.
  • Kuki-Zomi’s concerns about underdevelopment and their questions about the fairness of the administration need to be addressed. 
  • It demands a consensus among the Meitei, Kuki, Zomi, Naga, and other leaders to build a consensus around a Manipuri identity.

Conclusion:

The recent peace agreement with United National Liberation Front (UNLF) in Manipur reflects a significant step towards resolving longstanding conflicts, emphasizing the need for continued efforts in inclusive development, border management, and sustained peace-building initiatives involving diverse communities in the region.

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Context:  This article is based on the news “Re-criminalising adultery as a gender-neutral offence” which was published in the Hindu. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs has suggested that adultery should be re-instituted as a crime in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023.

What are Penal’s recommendations regarding the criminalisation of adultery?

• The Committee examined the three new criminal law Bills set to replace the Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), and the Indian Evidence Act recommended the criminalization of adultery but on gender-neutral lines. 
• This recommendation comes almost 5 years after a 5 judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court unanimously decriminalized adultery in 2018.

Read more about the Parliamentary Committee’s Recommendation on Adultery here. 

What is Adultery?

• Adultery: Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person, man or woman, and someone other than that person’s current partner. 
• Section 497: Until 2018, the IPC contained Section 497, which defined adultery as a criminal offense that attracted up to five years in prison, or a fine, or both. 
• Discrimination Under Section 497: Only men could be punished under Section 497, not women. It violated Articles 14, 15, and 21 of the Constitution which protects the fundamental rights to equality, non-discrimination, and life respectively.
• Section 497 Declared Unconstitutional: In Joseph Shine vs Union Of India, the Supreme Court unanimously struck down Section 497 of the IPC on grounds that included discrimination.
  • The Supreme Court held that the state should not interfere in the private matters (Article 21- Right to Privacy) of consenting adults and that their choices in matters of personal relationships should be protected.

What are the arguments in favor of the criminalisation of adultery?

• Ensuring Gender-Neutral Approach: According to the Committee, the revoked Section 497 of the IPC only penalized the married man, and reduced the married woman to be the property of her husband.
• The Malimath Committee (2003) on Reforms of the Criminal Justice System proposed in its report that adultery be retained as an offense but on gender-neutral terms. 
• Protecting the Institution of Marriage: Adultery is considered as a threat to the institution of marriage and the stability of families and criminalizing it is seen as a means of protecting families from emotional and psychological trauma.
  • The Committee is of the view that the institution of marriage is considered sacred in Indian society and for its protection, section 497 should be retained in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita in gender-neutral form.
• Act as Deterrence: The intention behind the Criminalisation of adultery in the present day is to deter the adulterer from committing such a “crime”. 
  • Although, the law has failed to prevent the act of adultery, such failure cannot be attributed to the law itself but to its enforcement. 
• Ensure Social Harmony: Supporters of criminalization believe that the law could contribute to social harmony and stability by discouraging extramarital affairs. It is argued that strong family units are essential for society’s overall well-being.
• Boost Public Morality: Criminal law everywhere in the world serves as a guardian of the moral principles of society, protecting a society’s historical roots while leading it towards a progressive social order. 
  • It is believed that the law should reflect and enforce the moral values of the society it governs, and criminalizing adultery is seen as a way to align legal norms with societal morals in India.

What are the arguments against the criminalisation of adultery?

• Violation of Personal Freedom: No marriage or alliance can take away one’s right over one’s own body. The law on adultery was discriminatory on the ground of sex and it is violative of the fundamental right to life and to live with dignity. 
  • Critics argued that the state should not regulate the personal relationships of consenting adults unless there is a compelling reason, such as harm to others. 
• Transformation of Society:  Societal attitudes toward marriage and relationships are evolving and the law needs to reflect these changes. Criminalization is seen as a reflection of outdated moral values that do not align with contemporary perspectives on individual autonomy and equality. 
• Marriage is no Longer Considered Sacred: Changing social norms, increased individual autonomy, and evolving priorities have shifted perceptions of marriage in India. 
  • Younger generations prioritize personal choice, career, and happiness, leading to a more diverse and dynamic understanding of relationships, departing from traditional notions of marriage as inherently sacred.
• Adultery as a Civil Wrong: Adultery is considered as a civil wrong, better addressed through family laws and divorce proceedings. Criminalising such personal matters is considered disproportionate and likely to lead to unnecessary legal entanglements. 
  • According to SC, if it is treated as a crime, there would be an immense intrusion into the extreme privacy of the matrimonial sphere and should be better left as a ground for divorce. 
• Focus on Consent and Mutual Agreement: It is suggested that instead of relying on punitive measures, the focus should be on fostering communication, understanding, and consent between partners.
• Impact on Children: The criminalisation of adultery would potentially have negative consequences for children in the affected families. Legal proceedings and the stigma associated with criminal charges could harm the well-being of children, and alternatives like family counseling were proposed as more constructive approaches.

Way Forward for Criminalisation of Adultery,

• Provide Holistic Solution: The problem with adultery being in IPC was two-fold, first is criminalising it based on the institution of marriage and the second is treating women as property. 
  • Making it gender neutral would do away with the second problem solving the patriarchy problem, but still leave the first problem unresolved.
• Following a Forward-Looking Approach: While ensuring gender neutrality, it is important to specify how it would apply to all relationships that will be recognised as marriage, including heterosexual marriages between trans people as envisaged by the judgment in Supriyo v. Union of India. 
• Ensuring Validity of Legislation:  Any attempt to re-criminalize adultery would likely face legal challenges based on constitutional principles, including the right to equality and personal freedom. 
  • The Parliament is well within its scope to overrule judicial rulings, but such legislative action will be considered valid only if the legal basis of the judgment is altered. 
• Aligning Public Opinion and Societal Values: It’s important to determine public opinion and assess whether there is widespread support for criminalizing adultery. Societal values and norms significantly shape legal frameworks, and any proposed changes must align with evolving perspectives.
• Exploring Alternative Approaches: Policymakers should explore alternative approaches to address concerns related to the sanctity of marriage, family stability, and moral values. This could involve promoting awareness, education, and support services rather than relying on criminal sanctions.
• Engaging Stakeholders: Engaging with various stakeholders, including legal experts, activists, and representatives of different communities, can help shape a more inclusive and informed decision-making process.

Conclusion:

The debate surrounding the criminalisation of adultery is multifaceted, with arguments both in favor and against reflecting diverse perspectives on societal values and individual freedoms. The Parliamentary Standing Committee’s recommendation to re-criminalize adultery, albeit on gender-neutral grounds, seeks to address concerns related to the institution of marriage, family stability, and moral values. 

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