In the ongoing Winter Session of the Parliament, the Union Environment Ministry presented data that highlighted the issue of coastal erosion in India.

• India has a coastline spanning over 7,500 kilometers across 13 states and union territories.

Key Points Presented By the Ministry of Environment Regarding Coastal Erosion

• National Overview of Coastal Erosion: 33.6% of India’s coastline faces erosion, 26.9% shows accretion, and 39.6% remains stable.
• More than 40% of erosion is noticed in four states/UT: 
  • West Bengal (63%), Pondicherry (57%), Kerala (45%) and Tamil Nadu (41%) coast.
• Study Period: Based on a study by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) covering 1990-2018 using satellite imagery and field surveys.
• Vulnerable Areas Identified: Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Maps (MHVM) by Indian National Centre for Ocean Information and Services (INCOIS) use high-resolution terrain mapping to pinpoint areas at risk.
  • These maps use data from extreme water levels, shoreline changes, sea level rise, and high-resolution terrain mapping to identify areas vulnerable to disasters like tsunamis and storm surges
• Situation in Karnataka’s District-Level Insights:
  • Dakshina Kannada: 17.74 km (48.4 per cent) of Dakshina Kannada’s 36.66 km coastline was eroded from 1990 to 2018.
  • Udupi: 34.7 percent erosion (34.96 km of 100.71 km)
  • Uttara Kannada: Lowest erosion at 12.3% of its 175.65 km coastline.

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About Coastal Erosion

• Definition: Coastal erosion is the process by which coastlines are eroded or worn away due to natural forces, primarily wave action, currents, cyclones, tides, and human activities such as sand mining, infrastructure construction, pollution, destruction of mangroves, dredging etc.

Causes of Coastal Erosion

• Natural Causes:
  • Wave Action and Tides: Constant wave action and high-energy tides cause sediment displacement.
  • Sea Level Rise: Accelerated by climate change, leading to submergence of coastal areas.
  • Cyclones and Storm Surges: Frequent cyclones amplify erosion, particularly along the eastern coast.
• Anthropogenic Causes:
  • Sand Mining: Unsustainable extraction disrupts sediment balance.
  • Infrastructure Development: Ports, harbors, and urbanisation alter natural sediment flow.
  • Deforestation of Mangroves: Loss of natural barriers increases coastal vulnerability.
  • Pollution: Waste deposition and industrial discharges destabilise coastal soils.

Mechanical Process of Coastal Erosion

Coastal erosion primarily occurs through four main processes:

• Corrasion: Strong waves hurl beach materials like pebbles against cliffs, gradually eroding them and creating wave-cut notches.
• Abrasion: Waves carrying sand and larger fragments wear away the base of cliffs or headlands, producing a sandpaper-like effect, particularly during storms.
• Hydraulic Action: When waves hit a cliff, they trap air in cracks. 
  • When the waves pull back, the trapped air bursts out forcefully, breaking off chunks of the cliff, especially since weathering has already weakened the rock.
• Attrition: Waves cause rocks and pebbles to collide with each other, breaking them down into smaller pieces.

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Impact of Coastal Erosion

• Loss of Land and Habitat: Coastal erosion leads to the loss of valuable land, especially in densely populated coastal areas. This results in the displacement of communities and loss of critical ecosystems.
  • Example: As the sea advances, mangrove forests in Sundarbans, West Bengal are being eroded, threatening biodiversity and the livelihoods of local communities that depend on these resources.
• Impact on Agriculture and Livelihoods: Coastal erosion leads to the salinisation of agricultural lands, which impacts crop yields and disrupts traditional farming practices. 
  • Fishermen, who depend on healthy coastal ecosystems, are also adversely affected.
    • Example: In parts of Kochi, Kerala coastal erosion is causing saltwater intrusion into agricultural fields.
• Coastal Flooding and Storm Surges: The erosion of natural barriers like dunes, mangroves, and coral reefs increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to storm surges and flooding, especially during monsoons and cyclones.
• Impact on Biodiversity: Coastal erosion threatens habitats for marine and terrestrial species, particularly in sensitive ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, and sandy beaches. 
  • This leads to the loss of biodiversity and the depletion of resources that local communities rely on.
• Increased Vulnerability to Climate Change: Example: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are experiencing rising sea levels and coastal erosion, which threaten their ecosystems and infrastructure. 
•  National and Global Security Concerns
  • Strategic Locations at Risk: Vulnerability of naval bases, ports, and island territories like Lakshadweep.
  • Geopolitical Ramifications: Increased competition for marine resources due to shifting coastlines.
    • Example: Recently, the Sri Lanka Navy has arrested 18 Indian fishermen for alleged illegal fishing in the island nation’s territorial waters and seized their fishing trawler.

Challenges in Tackling Coastal Erosion In India

• Climate Change Impacts: Rising sea levels, increased frequency of storms, and changes in wave patterns due to climate change intensify the vulnerability of coastal regions to erosion.
• Inadequate Coastal Management Policies: While Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) exists, its implementation is often weak, with inconsistent enforcement and a lack of coordination between stakeholders, leading to ineffective erosion management.
• Loss of Natural Coastal Buffers: Destruction of natural buffers like mangroves, coral reefs, and sand dunes, often due to human activity, leaves coastlines more exposed to erosion, flooding, and other environmental hazards.
• Lack of Coastal Data and Research: Insufficient data and research on local coastal dynamics and erosion trends hinder effective decision-making and long-term planning for coastal protection.
• Pollution: Coastal pollution, especially plastic waste and untreated sewage, can affect marine ecosystems and sediment transport, aggravating erosion problems.

Difference between Hard Engineering and Soft Engineering Coastal Management Techniques

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Government Initiatives to Combat Coastal Erosion in India

• Delineation of Hazard Line: The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has delineated the hazard line for the entire coast of the country. 
  • The hazard line is indicative of the shoreline changes, including sea level rise due to climate change. 
  • This line is to be used by agencies in Coastal States as a tool for Disaster Management including planning of adaptive and mitigation measures. 
  • The hazard line features in the new Coastal Zone Management Plans of the coastal States/Union territories approved by the MoEFCC.
• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019
  • Aims to conserve coastal stretches, protect marine areas, and secure livelihoods for fisher and local communities. Allows for erosion control measures along the coast.
  • Introduces No Development Zones (NDZs) to prevent encroachment and minimize erosion.
• Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs)
  • In compliance with a National Green Tribunal (NGT) order, all coastal states and UTs were instructed to finalize CZMPs.
  • These plans include mapping erosion-prone areas and preparing Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) for affected stretches.
• National Strategy for Coastal Protection
  • MoEFCC has developed a national strategy with guidelines for all coastal states and Union Territories to implement effective coastal protection measures.

• Coastal Management Information System (CMIS)
  • CMIS is a data collection activity carried out to collect near shore coastal data which can be used in planning, design, construction and maintenance of site specific coastal protection structures at vulnerable Coastal stretches.
• Karnataka Government Efforts: The Karnataka government has prepared a Shoreline Management Plan as per the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (CRZ), 2019.
  • It is implementing the World Bank-funded Karnataka Strengthening Coastal Resilience and the Economy (K-SHORE) project. 
    • The initiative aims to strengthen coastal protection and enhance resilience against natural disasters, safeguard the livelihoods of coastal communities through sustainable practices as well as address marine plastic pollution.
• Others: 
  • Geospatial Mapping: Utilises Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing to monitor erosion hotspots.
    • Example: The Chilika Development Authority remote sensing to monitor shoreline changes and manage sedimentation in Chilka Lake, Odisha.
  • Soft Engineering Techniques: Beach nourishment and plantation of mangroves, indigenous plants for shoreline stabilisation.
    • Example: Beach Nourishment in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
  • Artificial Reefs and Breakwaters: Reduce wave energy to control erosion.
    • Example: Tamil Nadu has deployed artificial reefs in several locations to enhance fish habitats while mitigating wave action and erosion.
  • Community-Based Approaches: Encouraging local participation in conservation projects. 
    • Example: Sundari Project: The aim of the Sundari project is to restore 4,000 hectares of urban degraded mangroves in the Indian Sundarbans by planting multiple local species and supporting local livelihoods.
  • BEAMS (Beach Environment & Aesthetics Management Services): On the lines of Blue Flag certification, India has also launched its own eco-label BEAMS under ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management) project.
    • It is launched by Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM) and the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) 
    • with an  aim to reduce coastal pollution, promote sustainable beach development, conserve ecosystems, and ensure cleanliness, hygiene, and safety for beachgoers.

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Way Forward

• Implementation of Coastal Adaptation Measures: Coastal Adaptation refers to strategies and actions designed to protect coastal areas from the impacts of climate change, rising sea levels, and natural hazards such as storms and erosion. Example:
  • Traditional hard engineering solutions such as seawalls, breakwaters, and jetties can be used to mitigate coastal erosion.
• Implementation of Nature-based solutions (NbS): such as mangrove restoration, bamboo fences, and oyster reefs can be promoted as effective alternatives.
• Enhancing Coastal Data Systems: Expand the Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) to more regions for accurate data collection.
  • Leverage satellite imagery, GIS mapping, and real-time AI-based erosion monitoring.
• Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs): Expedite the preparation and implementation of SMPs for all erosion-prone areas identified in Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs).
• Rehabilitation and Resettlement of People Displaced Due to Coastal Erosion: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) should develop a policy aligned with the 15th Finance Commission’s 2021 report, which, for the first time, highlighted the need for rehabilitation and resettlement of people displaced by river and coastal erosion.
• Call for a Paradigm Shift: There is an urgent need to shift from reactive measures to sustainable, proactive strategies addressing both natural and human-induced drivers of coastal erosion.

Conclusion

• A sustainable and collaborative approach is essential to address coastal erosion effectively. 
• By integrating science, policy, and community action, India can protect its coastal ecosystems, ensure the safety of its communities, and foster resilience against the evolving challenges of climate change.

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Recently, UNCCD and the UN University Institute for Water, Environment, and Health UNU-INWEH released  the report, ‘Economics of drought: Investing in nature-based solutions for drought resilience – proaction pays,‘ at the 16th Conference of the Parties (COP16) to UNCCD in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

16th Conference of the Parties (COP16) to UNCCD

• The sixteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP16) of the UNCCD take place in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from 2 to 13 December 2024.
  • It coincides with the Convention’s 30th anniversary.
  • It will also be the first time a UNCCD COP is held in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, which knows firsthand the impacts of desertification, land degradation and drought.

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Key Highlights of UNCCD Report

• Scale of Land Degradation: Currently, 40% of the world’s land is degraded, impacting the lives of 3.2 billion people globally, especially indigenous communities, rural households, youth, and women.
• Annual Cost of Drought: Annual global costs of drought already exceed $307 billion, driven by land mismanagement, deforestation, groundwater overdraft, and climate change.
• Human-Induced Droughts: Human-induced droughts have increased by 29% since 2000, and projections indicate that by 2050, three in four people worldwide could be affected.
  • Drought is increasingly linked to unsustainable land and water management practices, not merely the lack of rainfall.
• Financial Gaps: The world needs $355 billion annually from 2025 to 2030 to meet land restoration and drought resilience goals.
• • Current investments have increased from $37 billion in 2016 to $66 billion in 2022, but there remains an annual shortfall of $278 billion.
  • The private sector currently contributes only 6% of the required funding, and increasing private investment is essential.
• Cost of Inaction: Land degradation already costs the global economy $878 billion annually, which includes losses in agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and damages caused by drought.
• Economic and Environmental Case for Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)
  • Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) focus on restoring ecosystem functions and soil health to enhance water flow, storage, and supply. 
    • Examples include: Reforestation, grazing management, and watershed restoration.
  • Triple Dividend of NbS:
    • Reduce loss and damage from drought.
    • Increase income for land and water users.
    • Generate co-benefits for climate resilience, biodiversity, and sustainable development.
  • Every $1 invested in NbS yields up to $27 in benefits, such as:
    • Higher farmer incomes.
    • Value chain resilience.
    • Reduced long-term economic costs.
  • Business Potential: By 2030, NbS could generate $10.1 trillion in business value and create 395 million jobs globally.

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About Land Degradation

• According to the UNCCD, land degradation refers to the reduction or loss of biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, range, pasture, forest, and woodlands.

Status of Land Degradation in India

Causes of Land Degradation

• Unsustainable Agricultural Practices: Unsustainable use of water resources especially in arid or dry regions leads to soil degradation and erosion.
  • Unsustainable irrigation depletes freshwater resources, particularly in regions like Punjab, where groundwater extraction exceeds replenishment levels by 165%, also creating the problem of salinization.
• Excessive Use of Fertilizers: Overuse of nitrogen- and phosphorus-based fertilizers destabilizes ecosystems by causing nutrient imbalance.
  • For instance, the eutrophication of water bodies like the Gulf of Mexico’s “dead zone” is linked to fertilizer runoff.
• Climate Change: Global warming increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall and droughts, accelerating soil erosion.
  • According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global warming has worsened desertification in the Sahel region of Africa.
• Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture and urban expansion leads to loss of vegetation cover, making soil vulnerable to erosion.
  • Since 1980, India has diverted 1.5 million hectares of forest land for development and a majority of this loss occurred since 2000.
• Rapid Urbanization: Rapid urbanisation has intensified land degradation by contributing to habitat destruction, pollution, and biodiversity loss.
  • The Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR) has experienced rapid urban sprawl in areas like Noida, Gurgaon, and Ghaziabad, leading to significant loss of agricultural land.
• Overgrazing: Uncontrolled grazing by livestock reduces vegetation cover, depletes soil nutrients, and accelerates desertification.
  • The Thar Desert in India and Pakistan has expanded due to overgrazing combined with poor land management practices.

Impacts of Land Degradation

• Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Declining soil fertility lowers crop yields, increasing the risk of food insecurity.
  • According to the FAO, degraded land reduces global agricultural productivity by 12%, equivalent to a loss of $400 billion annually.
• Increased Risk of Diseases: Scarcity of clean water due to land degradation fosters water-borne diseases like cholera and dysentery.
  • For example, drought-affected regions in sub-Saharan Africa face recurring outbreaks of water-related illnesses.
• Damage to Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems: Fertilizer-laden soil runoff into rivers and oceans causes algal blooms, depleting oxygen levels and harming aquatic life.
  • The Ganga River suffers from nutrient pollution, leading to declining fish populations and affecting livelihoods.
• Contribution to Climate Change: Degraded soils release stored carbon and nitrous oxide, further exacerbating global warming.
  • Land degradation reduces carbon sequestration capacity by 20%, as noted in the UNCCD report.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Habitat destruction caused by deforestation and urbanization threatens wildlife species.
  • For instance, land conversion in the Amazon rainforest has endangered species like the jaguar and giant otter.
• Economic Losses and Livelihood Impacts: Global economic losses due to land degradation are estimated at $10.6 trillion annually, or about 17% of the world’s GDP.
  • Farmers in Ethiopia lose $4 billion annually from degraded croplands, further entrenching poverty in rural areas.

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Government Measures to Combat Land Degradation and Desertification

• Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas: Published by Space Applications Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organisation. Offers state-wise information on degraded land to aid restoration planning.
  • Estimated land degradation and desertification in India: 97.84 million hectares in 2018-19.
• National Action Plan to Combat Desertification: This plan aims to: 
  • Restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 
  • Increase forest and tree cover to generate 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030. 
• Afforestation schemes: 
  • The National Mission for a Green India (GIM) (2014): One of the eight Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.
  • The Forest Fire Protection & Management Scheme (FFPM) (2017): Created to help states deal with forest fires 
  • Compensatory afforestation under CAMPA (2004): To ensure the efficient and transparent use of funds released for compensatory afforestation.
  • National Coastal Mission Programme (2014): To ensure sustainable development of coastal regions.
• National Afforestation Programme (NAP): The scheme has been implemented since 2000 on a pan-India basis by the National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB). 
  • It aims to restore degraded forests and adjoining areas through people’s participation. 
• Watershed Development Component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) (2015): To improve the landscape’s ecological rejuvenation and economic growth.
• Online Portal for Visualization: Developed in collaboration with Space Application Center (SAC), Ahmedabad.
  • Allows visualization of degraded land areas and the processes causing degradation.
• Centre of Excellence at ICFRE Dehradun: Envisioned at the Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun.
  • Focuses on South-South Cooperation for knowledge sharing and best practices.
  • Aims to share India’s experiences in sustainable land management.
• International Cooperation: India is a party to the UNCCD and actively participates in international efforts to combat desertification.

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Way Forward to Address Land Degradation

• Promote Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Transitioning to sustainable farming techniques such as agroforestry, crop rotation, and organic farming can reduce soil erosion and chemical pollution.
  • The “Zero Budget Natural Farming” (ZBNF) initiative in India has improved soil health and reduced input costs for farmers.
• Enhance Reforestation and Afforestation Programs: Large-scale afforestation projects like India’s Green India Mission can restore degraded land while improving biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
• Adopt Nature-Based Solutions (NbS): Implementing NbS such as watershed management and wetland restoration can address land degradation while providing co-benefits for water conservation and biodiversity.

• • Kenya’s Tana River Basin project reduced erosion and improved local water availability, benefiting both people and ecosystems.
• Strengthen Legal and Policy Frameworks: Governments must integrate land degradation mitigation into national policies and enforce land-use regulations.
• Leverage Technology and Data for Land Monitoring: Using satellite imagery and GIS can help track changes in land use, identify degradation hotspots, and guide restoration efforts.
  • The European Space Agency’s Sentinel satellites are monitoring desertification in the Sahel region, aiding targeted interventions.
• Mobilize Financial Resources: Scaling up investments through public-private partnerships, green bonds, and repurposing harmful subsidies can address funding gaps.
  • As per FAO report, repurposing $540 billion in annual global agricultural subsidies towards sustainable practices could unlock resources for combating land degradation.
• Engage Communities and Strengthen Local Governance: Involving local communities in land restoration efforts ensures ownership, better implementation, and long-term success.
  • The Sukhomajri watershed project in India succeeded by incentivizing communities with improved irrigation and drinking water, leading to reduced soil erosion and enhanced forest cover.
  • In Ethiopia, community-based land tenure reforms have reduced degradation by empowering locals to manage their lands sustainably.

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Conclusion

Land degradation poses a significant threat to ecosystems, livelihoods, and global sustainability. Addressing this challenge requires a coordinated approach that combines sustainable practices, technological innovation, and community participation. 

• By prioritizing restoration efforts, we can secure a healthier planet for future generations while achieving key developmental and environmental goals.

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The Government of India and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) signed a $98 million loan to promote plant health management in India’s horticulture.

• The loan agreement is to support India’s Atma Nirbhar Clean Plant Programme.

About Atma Nirbhar Clean Plant Programme (CCP):

• Announced: It was announced in the Union Budget of 2023-24 under the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) to boost the horticulture sector. 
• Objective: To improve farmers’ access to certified disease-free planting materials, increasing crop yields, quality, and resilience to climate impacts.
• Implementing Agencies: The project will be implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare through the National Horticulture Board and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
• Collaboration with Stakeholders: The project involves consultations with private nurseries, researchers, state governments, and growers’ associations for its successful implementation.

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• Establishment of Clean Plant Centres: Clean Plant Centers (CPCs): They are the core components of the CPP. 
  • The project will establish centres to maintain disease-free planting materials, equipped with laboratories and trained experts.
  • Advanced CPCs will be established across India, each focusing on specific fruit types. 
  • These centers will be equipped with modern diagnostic and therapeutic facilities, including tissue culture labs. 
• Clean Plant Certification Scheme: The initiative will roll out a certification scheme under the Seeds Act of 1966  to test and accredit private nurseries for disease-free planting materials.
• Alignment with Broader Initiatives: The Clean Plant Programme aligns with broader initiatives such as Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) and the One Health approach.

About Plant Health Management

• Plant health management is the science and practice of protecting plants from diseases, pests, and environmental stressors. It aims to maintain plant health, productivity, and quality.
• Principles of Plant Health Management
• • Exclusion: Preventing the introduction of pests and diseases to new areas.
  • Eradication: Eliminating existing pests and diseases.
  • Protection: Shielding plants from pests and diseases using physical barriers or chemical treatments.
  • Resistance: Utilizing plant varieties with natural resistance to pests and diseases.
  • Integrated Pest Management (IPM): A comprehensive approach combining multiple strategies to manage pests in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner.

Key Government Schemes to Revolutionise India’s Horticulture Sector

• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
  • Objective: MIDH is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme aimed at the holistic growth of the horticulture sector. 
  • Implementing Ministry: The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare has been implementing MIDH since 2014-15.
  • Part of Green Revolution: MIDH is implemented under the Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana.
  • Funding Pattern
    • General States: The Government of India (GoI) contributes 60% of the total outlay for developmental programmes, while State Governments contribute 40%.
    • North Eastern and Himalayan States: For these regions, GoI contributes 90% of the total outlay, with State Governments contributing the remaining 10%.

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• Sub Schemes of MIDH:
  • National Horticulture Mission (NHM): Launched in 2005, the NHM is a centrally sponsored scheme aimed at promoting the holistic growth of the horticulture sector. 
  • Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH): The HMNEH focuses on the comprehensive development of horticulture in the North Eastern and Himalayan regions. 
    • It promotes crops suited to the unique agro-climatic conditions of these areas, aiming to improve farmers’ livelihoods and promote sustainable horticulture practices.
• Enhanced Support for Horticulture Under PMFBY: Under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), premium contributions for farmers are capped at:
  • 2% for Kharif crops
  • 1.5% for Rabi crops
  • 5% for commercial and horticultural crops
• Horticulture Cluster Development Programme (HCDP): The HCDP promotes integrated and market-led development of horticulture clusters based on geographical specialization.
  • It focuses on identified crops in specific regions, aiming to optimize productivity, increase exports, and enhance the global competitiveness of Indian horticulture products.
• Post-Harvest Infrastructure Development Scheme: This scheme addresses post-harvest losses by providing support for modern facilities, such as pack houses, ripening chambers, cold storage units, and processing facilities.
• Soil Health Card Scheme: Though not exclusive to horticulture, this scheme significantly benefits horticultural farmers. 
  • It involves soil testing and provides health cards with crop-wise recommendations on nutrients and fertilizers, helping farmers make informed decisions, potentially improving yields and reducing input costs.

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U.S. President Joe Biden has recently granted an unconditional pardon to his son, Hunter Biden, who faced federal tax and gun convictions. 

Key highlights of the Pardoning

• This pardon also extends to potential federal crimes committed by Hunter between 2014 and 2024. President Biden’s decision has sparked debates.
  • It contrasts with his earlier public commitment not to pardon his son.
• The President justified the pardon by alleging selective prosecution against Hunter due to his familial ties. 
  • Critics, however, have raised concerns about nepotism and political favoritism.
• Pardoning power in the U.S. has been mired in controversies since the time of George Washington, who pardoned leaders of the Whiskey Rebellion in 1795. Examples of contentious pardons include:
• Bill Clinton’s Pardon of Roger Clinton: In 2001, President Clinton pardoned his half-brother for drug-related convictions.
• Donald Trump’s Pardon of Charles Kushner: In 2020, Trump pardoned his son-in-law’s father, sparking accusations of favoritism.

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About Pardoning Power

• Pardoning power refers to the authority vested in a head of state or government to grant clemency to individuals convicted of crimes.
• This power can provide relief from punishment, commute sentences, or erase associated disqualifications. However, a pardon does not necessarily erase the record of conviction.
• Pardoning power of the U.S. President: The Constitution grants the President the power to pardon federal crimes, except in cases of impeachment.
• This power is broad, allowing pardons to be issued before legal proceedings, during trials, or after convictions.
• Pardoning Power in India: Articles 72 and 161 of the Constitution empower the President and Governors to grant pardons, respites, reprieves, commutations, or remissions.
  • These powers are exercised on the advice of the council of ministers.

Key Judgments on the Pardoning Powers of the President

• Maru Ram v. Union of India (1980): The Supreme Court held that the President’s pardoning power is subject to judicial review if exercised arbitrarily, irrationally, or in bad faith. It emphasized that the President must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers, ensuring that pardoning is not an act of personal discretion.
• Kehar Singh v. Union of India (1989): The Supreme Court clarified that the President cannot be compelled to give reasons for granting or denying clemency. The Court held that the President’s decision in exercising clemency powers is not open to challenge on merits, reaffirming its discretionary nature within constitutional boundaries.
• Epuru Sudhakar v. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2006): The Court reiterated that the President’s pardoning power is not absolute and can be subjected to judicial review.
• Criteria for Review: Pardoning decisions must not violate principles of natural justice, and they must be free from arbitrariness or mala fide intent.
  • This judgment expanded the scope for judicial intervention in clemency matters.
• Shatrugan Chauhan v. Union of India (2014): The Supreme Court emphasized that delays in deciding mercy petitions can be a valid ground for commutation of death sentences.
  • It highlighted the need for prompt decision-making by the President or Governor to ensure fairness in administering justice.

Origin and Evolution of Pardoning Power

• Origins of Pardoning Power: The pardoning power traces its origins to the British royal prerogative of mercy, a historic privilege exercised by the monarch. Initially, this power served as a way to provide alternatives to severe sentences, such as death penalties.
• Evolution of Pardoning Power: Over time, the pardoning power evolved into a mechanism for granting clemency, often exercised upon the advice of government ministers.
  • This shift reflected the transition from absolute monarchy to a more structured form of governance.
• Role in Modern Democracies: In contemporary democracies, pardoning power holds both symbolic and functional significance. 
  • It is used to correct judicial errors, address perceived injustices, and demonstrate compassion in specific cases.

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Comparison of Pardoning Power: US President, Indian President, and Indian Governor

Challenges and Criticism of Pardoning Power

• Conflict with Democratic Principles: Rooted in monarchy, pardoning power may contradict the rule of law and separation of powers, fostering perceptions of unchecked authority.
• Delay in Justice: Mercy petitions often face delays or rejections influenced by political motives. 
• Political Influences: Mercy petition decisions are often influenced by political considerations, delaying justice and eroding fairness.
• Nepotism and Misuse: Instances like President Biden’s pardon of his son raise concerns about favoritism, undermining public trust in constitutional impartiality.

Alternative to Pardoning Power

• In the U.K., the establishment of the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC) has reduced reliance on the royal prerogative of mercy.
• The CCRC investigates potential miscarriages of justice transparently, providing a more objective means of correcting errors.

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Way Forward

• As long as pardoning power remains part of constitutional frameworks, it must be exercised with utmost integrity. 
• To retain public trust in democratic institutions, this power should be  transparent and free from nepotism or favoritism.
• Pardoning should serve as a mechanism to correct genuine judicial errors.
• The power should be subject to checks and balances, including judicial review.

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The ICJ began hearings in a case that seeks its advisory opinion on the obligations of countries on climate change under existing international laws, and the legal consequences of those obligations.

Key Highlights of the Case

• Objective: To hold the developed countries to account for their climate responsibilities, the developing nations have taken their concerns to ICJ and to clarify legal consequences for breaches of their obligations.

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• Initiated by Vanuatu in 2021, supported by the youth group Pacific Island Students Fighting Climate Change.
• Gained momentum with a resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly on 29 March 2023, co-sponsored by 132 countries.
  • The resolution referred to international legal instruments such as the Paris Agreement and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• Officially transmitted to the ICJ by the UN Secretary-General in April 2023.
• Questions posed to the court include:
  • Obligations of States to mitigate human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Legal implications for harm caused to vulnerable nations and future generations.

Significance of the Case

• Largest case in ICJ history with:
  • 91 written statements and 62 comments submitted.
  • Participation from 97 States and 11 international organizations.
• Critical for small island developing States facing severe climate change impacts.
• Highlights urgency following COP29 criticism over insufficient climate finance commitments.

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Obligation for Developed Countries as per Paris Agreement

• Mitigation: Developed countries are obligated to undertake absolute economy-wide emission reduction targets.
• Finance: They must provide financial resources to developing countries to help them mitigate and adapt to climate change.
• Technology Transfer: Developed countries should promote the development and transfer of climate-friendly technologies to developing nations.
• Capacity Building: They should support capacity building in developing countries to enhance their ability to address climate change.
• Transparency and Accountability: Developed countries must regularly report on their climate actions and progress towards their targets.

Threat to Small Island Nation

• Sea Level Rise: The most immediate threat is the rising sea level, which can erode coastlines, inundate low-lying areas, and contaminate freshwater supplies.
  • Low-lying island nations like  Maldives are particularly vulnerable to this threat.
• Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and intense hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons can cause widespread damage to infrastructure and ecosystems. Small island nations, with their limited resources, struggle to recover from such events.
• Ocean Acidification: Increased carbon dioxide absorption by the ocean leads to acidification, harming marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, which are vital for tourism and fisheries.
• Water Scarcity: Changes in rainfall patterns can lead to droughts, affecting agriculture and water availability.
• Food Security: Climate change impacts on agriculture, fisheries, and tourism can compromise food security and economic stability.

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A  26-member ACNAS high level panel chaired by Biswanath Goldar has been constituted to revise India’s GDP base year from 2011-12 to 2022-23 under the Ministry of State for Statistics & Programme Implementation.

Objectives of the Update

• Base Year Revision: The new base year for GDP calculations will be updated to 2022-23.
  • The current GDP series, based on 2011-12 as the base year, was introduced in January 2015.
• Key Reasons for Changing the Base Year:
  • Reflecting Economic Shifts: The Indian economy has undergone significant structural changes, particularly in the service and technology sectors. The old base year may not accurately represent the current economic reality.
  • Leveraging New Data Sources: The availability of high-frequency data sources like digital payments and e-commerce has improved, allowing for more accurate GDP calculations.
  • Adapting to Post-Pandemic Economy: The COVID-19 pandemic has reshaped global and domestic economic dynamics. A new base year helps incorporate these changes and provide a more accurate assessment of economic recovery.
  • Aligning with International Standards: Updating the base year enhances India’s GDP data comparability with international standards, facilitating global economic analysis.
• Advisory Committee on National Accounts Statistics (ACNAS):The panel includes members from RBI, academia, central and state governments, and researchers.
• Timeline and Expectations: The exercise is expected to be completed by early 2026.

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About Base Year 

• Base Year is a specific year used as a benchmark to measure economic changes over time.
• Base Year Revision: The government periodically revises the base year to reflect changes in the economy’s structure and composition.
• First Estimates: The first official GDP estimates were based on 1948-49 as the base year.
  • Published in 1956 under the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO).

Role of Base Year in GDP Calculation:

• Price Index: The base year’s prices are used to create a price index, such as the GDP deflator.
• GDP Deflator: A measure of the overall price level of all final goods and services produced in an economy.
  • Calculation: (Nominal GDP / Real GDP) x 100
• Real GDP Calculation: Real GDP = Nominal GDP / GDP Deflator
• Recent Base Year: India’s current base year for GDP calculation is 2011-12.

Steps Taken to Strengthen Statistical Reporting

• Standardized Data Structures: Harmonization of data collection and reporting across the National Statistical System.
• Use of Administrative Data: Integration of administrative records to enhance data quality.
• Advisory Role: ACNAS will identify new data sources and refine methodologies for compiling the revised National Accounts Statistics.

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Implications of the Change in Base Year

• Improved Growth Insights: Revising the base year will adjust historical GDP estimates, offering a clearer view of economic trends and growth patterns.
• Enhanced Policy Planning: Accurate GDP data will enable better-targeted government policies in crucial sectors like health, education, and infrastructure.
• Boost to Investor Confidence: Updated and transparent data will reflect the true state of the economy, attracting greater investor trust.

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3 Papers published in the journal Nature by a team called eDyNAmiC explored how ecDNA is formed and contributes to the progression of cancer and drug resistance.

About the Study

• Subject:
  • First Study: Mutation patterns in tumours before and after the formation of ecDNA was analysed to identify the role of certain factors like smoking, exposure to certain substances, and genetic mutations triggering DNA damage leading to the formation of ecDNA.
  • Second Study: The violation of the Mendel’s third law of independent assortment by reporting that ecDNA is passed on in clusters to the daughter cells during cell division.
    • Mendel’s Third Law: The genes on the same chromosome are inherited together while those on different chromosomes are distributed independently of one another, usually when cells divide.
      • When cells divide, they duplicate the chromosomes and distribute it equally among their daughter cells.

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• • Third Study: It uncovered a potential weakness in tumours that relies on ecDNA  leading to a conflict between the cellular machinery involved in making RNA and the activity of cancer cells that leads to DNA damage.
• Samples: Samples from nearly 15,000 cancer patients from U.K.’s 100,000 Genomes Project, covering 39 tumour types were analysed for the study. 
• Method Used: Computational tools like AmpliconArchitect followed by AmpliconClassifier were used to identify ecDNA from whole-genome sequencing data and the Findings were validated using a method called fluorescence in-situ hybridisation (or FISH) 
  • FISH Technique specifically looks for certain cancer-related genes in tissue samples.
• Need: ecDNA is a major contributor to treatment resistance and poor outcome for patients with cancer
• Findings:
  • Widespread Presence: It was found that ecDNA was present in about 17% of tumour samples but more so in liposarcomas, brain tumours, and breast cancers.
  • The prevalence of ecDNA rose after treatments like chemotherapy, and correlated with metastasis and worse patient outcomes.
  • The “Jackpot Effect”: The clustering of ecDNA in daughter cells gives cancer cells an advantage as it allows them to enhance gene interactions, support cancer growth, and preserve favourable genetic combinations over multiple life-cycles. 
    • Fundamental shift in Genetics Understanding: It overturns the idea that gene inheritance is entirely random when the genes are not linked by DNA strands
  • It was reported that the transcription process (from DNA to RNA) facilitates the coordinated segregation of ecDNA during cell division.
  • New Cancer Treatment: A drug (BBI-2779) was used to block the CHK1 Protein found that the drug selectively killed cancer cells with ecDNA, significantly reducing the number of tumours in mice with stomach cancer.
    • It can provide new treatment options particularly for patients with ecDNA-driven cancers, such as glioblastoma and ovarian and lung cancers.

About ecDNA

• Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is a type of DNA that exists outside of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell.
  • In normal human cells, the nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes that enclose the DNA. 
• Discovery: ecDNA was discovered in the 1960s when its presence was found in only 1.4% of tumors.
• Types: ecDNA is categorized into five types based on its sequence and size,
  • Small polydispersed DNA (spcDNA), MicroDNA, t-circle/c-circle, ERC, and ecDNA
• Structure: Individual ecDNAs are large (typically greater than 500 kilobases), mobile, gene-containing (and regulatory-region-containing) circular DNA particles that can be found in the nuclei of many cancer cells
• Segregation: ecDNA lacks centromeres and segregates randomly or asymmetrically during cell division

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• ecDNA and Cancer Biology: 
  • Prevalence: A study published in 2017 reveals that ecDNA is present in nearly 40% of cancer cell lines and in up to 90% of patient-derived brain tumour samples making its study pivotal for understanding cancer biology.
  • Oncogenes: ecDNA is a common origin for amplified oncogenes (mutated genes capable of causing cancer) across human cancer and its presence in tumours often contain multiple copies of oncogenes that are required to activate tumour growth. 
    • Presence: Oncogenes are not present in chromosomes as ecDNA moves freely unlike chromosomal DNA (It is fixed within specific regions in the cell) and interacts with other ecDNA to form hubs (concentrated zones where oncogenes are expressed more)
    • Cancer Growth: A 2021 study has found that when cells transcribe ecDNA to mRNA, the process causes specific oncogenes to become four-times more common in the cell than if the DNA came from the chromosomes.
      • This anomaly enhances the potential to accelerate the Evolution of Tumours and help the cancer resist drugs.

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Recently, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), a rebel militia, seized Aleppo, the 2nd largest city of Syria.

About Syria

• Location: Syria is a Western Asian country located in the Northern and Eastern hemispheres on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
• Borders: It shares boundaries with Turkey (north), Iraq (east and southeast), Jordan (south), Israel and Lebanon (southwest).

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Geography of Syria

• Mountains: The Anti-Lebanon Mountains separate Syria and Lebanon, with Mt. Hermon (2,814 m) as the highest point.
  • The Bishri Mountains dominate the west-central and northern regions.
• Rivers: The Euphrates River (rising in Turkey) and its tributary, the Khabur River, are the major water bodies.
  • Smaller rivers flow into central valleys, and Lake al-Assad, a man-made reservoir.
• Vegetation: Coastal areas support Mediterranean vegetation, while the Syrian Desert in the east has sparse vegetation.
• Sea: The Mediterranean Sea lies to the west, featuring a 180 km-long coastline with sandy bays, cliffs, and rocky headlands.
• Important Cities of Syria:
  • Damascus: The capital and largest city, located near the Barada River, is one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities.
  • Aleppo: The most populous city in Syria.
• Climate: Syria has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The eastern desert areas are arid.

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India’s Contribution to BRICS New Development Bank (NDB)

Context: India has contributed $2 billion to the BRICS New Development Bank (NDB) in seven installments between 2015-16 and 2021-22.

About India and NDB

India and the New Development Bank (NDB)

• Establishment of NDB: The New Development Bank (NDB) was established in 2014 by the BRICS nations ; Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
• Objective: To mobilize resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS and other emerging economies. 
• India’s Role in NDB:India’s contributions to NDB and BRICS’ initiatives underline its commitment to strengthening global financial systems and promoting inclusive economic growth.
  • India is a founding member of the NDB.
  • It actively participates in the decision-making processes of the bank.
  • India has benefited significantly from NDB financing for various infrastructure projects.

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NDB’s Impact on India

• Infrastructure Financing: NDB has provided substantial funding for projects like the Delhi-Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System, metro rail projects, and renewable energy initiatives.
  • India currently has 20 externally aided projects financed by NDB loans worth $4,867 million.
  • These projects focus on areas such as Transportation, Water conservation, Food management and Connectivity in rural areas
• Sustainable Development: The bank prioritizes sustainable development goals, aligning with India’s focus on clean energy and environmental protection.

US-India MH-60R Helicopter Deal

Context: Recently, the US approved a $1.17 billion deal to provide support equipment for India’s MH-60R Seahawk helicopters.

Key Highlights of the Deal

• Enhanced capabilities: The deal aims to upgrade India’s anti-submarine warfare capabilities and deter potential threats.
• Lockheed Martin as prime contractor: Lockheed Martin will be the primary contractor for the project.

About MH-60R Helicopter

• Manufactured by Lockheed Martin and used in the U.S. Navy’s primary maritime helicopter. It has been designed for all-weather operations with state-of-the-art avionics and sensors.
• Capabilities:
  • Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW)
  • Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW)
  • Search-and-rescue (SAR), surveillance, naval gunfire support, logistics, and vertical replenishment (VERTREP).
  • Operates from frigates, destroyers, cruisers, amphibious ships, and aircraft carriers.
• Unique Features: Equipped with airborne active sonar, multi-mode radar, FLIR turret, and an integrated self-defense system.
  • Can carry three or four flight crews and five passengers.
• India’s Acquisition: India ordered 24 MH-60R helicopters in 2020 for ₹14,000 crores for which the deliveries began in 2022 and will be completed by 2025.

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EXERCISE HARIMAU SHAKTI

Context: The 4th edition of India- Malaysia Joint Military Exercise HARIMAU SHAKTI commenced recently, at Bentong camp, Pahang district, Malaysia.

• Objective: To enhance joint military capability to conduct counter-insurgency operations in jungle terrain under Chapter VII of the United Nations Mandate.
  • Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter gives the Security Council the authority to take action to maintain or restore international peace and security.

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