Introduction

The suspension of Mongol expansion in the West did not arrest their campaigns in China which was reunited under the Mongols. Paradoxically, it was at the moment of its greatest successes that

internal turbulence between members of the ruling family manifested itself. 

Social, Political and Military Organisation 

Revolutionising the Steppe

• Genghis Khan’s approach to organizing his empire was marked by a transformation of the traditional steppe social order. 
  • He united diverse Mongol tribes and incorporated new members, creating a highly heterogeneous military force. 
• Decimating Tribal Boundaries: To erase old tribal identities, he reorganized the army into decimal units, breaking down tribal groupings and redistributing members. 

Social Restructuring

• This altered the social structure, integrating different lineages and clans under a new identity derived from Genghis Khan.
• Establishing Loyalty and Hierarchy: The new military contingents were required to serve under his four sons and specially chosen captains of his army units called noyan. 
  • Loyal Companions: Also important within the new realm were a band of followers who had served Genghis Khan loyally through grave adversity for many years. 
  • Recognition of Blood-Brothers: Genghis Khan publicly honoured some of these individuals as his ‘blood-brothers’ (anda); yet others, freemen of a humbler rank, were given special ranking as his bondsmen (naukar), a title that marked their close relationship with their master. 

New Hierarchy of Governance

Territories to His Four Sons: In this new hierarchy, Genghis Khan assigned the responsibility of governing the newly conquered people to his four sons.

• Ulus: These comprised the four ulus, a term that did not originally mean fixed territories. 
  • The ulus, initially referring to territories, became synonymous with distinct territorial dominions. 
• Age of Rapid Conquests: Genghis Khan’s lifetime was still the age of rapid conquests and expanding domains, where frontiers were still extremely fluid.

Collective Rule and Shared Dominion

Collective Rule: Genghis Khan envisaged that his sons would rule the empire collectively, and to underline this point, military contingents (tama) of the  individual princes were placed in each ulus. 

• Collective Governance: The sense of a dominion shared by the members of the family was underlined at the assembly of chieftains (quriltais), 
• Quriltais: All decisions relating to the family or the state for the forthcoming season (campaigns, distribution of plunder, pasture lands and succession) were collectively taken.

Communication Network

Efficient Communication: Genghis Khan had already fashioned a rapid courier system that connected the distant areas of his regime. 

• Fresh mounts and despatch riders were placed in outposts at regularly spaced distances
• Qubcur Tax: For the maintenance of this communication system the Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd. 
  • This was called the qubcur tax, a levy that the  nomads paid willingly for the multiple benefits that it brought. The courier system (yam) was further refined after Genghis Khan’s death and its speed and reliability surprised travellers. 
• The Courier System (yam): This was further refined after Genghis Khan’s death and its speed and reliability surprised travellers.

• Strategic Oversight: It enabled the Great Khans to keep a check on developments at the farthest end of their regime across the continental landmass.

Conquest and Discontent

Strained Relations: The conquered people, however, hardly felt a sense of affinity with their new nomadic masters. 

• Consequences Campaigns: During the campaigns in the first half of the thirteenth century, cities were destroyed, agricultural lands laid waste, trade and handicraft production disrupted.
• Example: In the resulting instability, the underground canals, called qanats, in the arid Iranian plateau could no longer receive periodic maintenance.

Pax Mongolica:  Territorial Linkages

Once the dust from the campaigns had settled, Europe and China were territorially linked. In the peace ushered in by Mongol conquest (Pax Mongolica) trade connections matured. 

• Silk Route Expansion: Commerce and travel along the Silk Route reached its peak under the Mongols but, unlike before, the trade routes did not terminate in China. 
  • They continued north into Mongolia and to Karakorum, the heart of the new empire. 
• Safeguarding Mongol Authority: Communication and ease of travel was vital to retain the coherence of the Mongol regime and travellers were given a pass (paiza in Persian; gerege in Mongolian) for safe conduct. 
  • Braj Tax: Traders paid the baj tax for the same purpose, all acknowledging thereby the authority of the Mongol Khan

Cultural Exchange and Administrative Expertise

Administrative Integration: From Genghis Khan’s reign itself, the Mongols had recruited civil administrators from the conquered societies. They were sometimes moved around: 

• Cultural Exchange: Chinese secretaries deployed in Iran and Persians in China. They helped in integrating the distant dominions and their backgrounds and training were always useful in blunting the harsher edges of nomadic predation on sedentary life. 
• Administrative Influence and Trust: The Mongol Khans trusted them as long as they continued to raise revenue for their masters and these administrators could sometimes command considerable influence.

Sedentarization Pressures and Dynastic Fragmentation

Sedentarization: The pressure to sedentarise was greater in the new areas of Mongol domicile, areas distant from the original steppe habitat of the nomads. 

• • Dynastic Evolution: By the middle of the thirteenth century the sense of a common patrimony shared by all the brothers was gradually replaced by individual dynasties each ruling their separate ulus, a term which now carried the sense of a territorial dominion. 
  • Struggles and Competition: This was, in part, a result of succession struggles, where Genghis Khanid descendants competed for the office of Great Khan and prized pastoral lands.
• Example: 
• Descendants of Toluy had come to rule both China and Iran where they had formed the Yuan and Il-Khanid dynasties. 
• Descendants of Jochi formed the Golden Horde and ruled the Russian steppes; 
• Chaghatai’s successors ruled the steppes of Transoxiana and the lands called Turkistan today.
• Evolution of Lineage Groups: The gradual separation of the descendants of Genghis Khan into separate lineage groups implied that their connections with the memory and traditions of a past family concordance also altered.
• Shaping the Genghis Khanid Legacy: The Genghis Khanid legacy was important, but for his descendants to appear as convincing heroes to a sedentary audience, they could no longer appear in quite the same way as their ancestor.

Evolution of the Yasa and Memory of the Great Khan

Yasa: It was initially referring to administrative regulations, evolved into the “legal code of Genghis Khan.” 

• It served as a unifying force for the Mongol people, emphasizing their distinct identity and claiming a sacred law given by their ancestors. 
• Empowering the Mongols: The yasa empowered the Mongols, allowing them to retain their ethnic identity while imposing their law on conquered subjects, contributing to the construction of a Mongol universal dominion.

Situating Genghis Khan and the Mongols in World History

Genghis Khan’s Complex Legacy: While Genghis Khan is often remembered as a conqueror responsible for the destruction of cities and the death of thousands, his legacy holds a different significance for the Mongols. 

• Greatest Leader for Unifying the Mongol People: For them, Genghis Khan is considered the greatest leader of all time. 
  • He united the Mongol people, ending tribal wars and Chinese exploitation, bringing prosperity and creating a vast transcontinental empire. 
• Diversity in Mongol Dominion: The Mongol dominion in the thirteenth century was exceptionally diverse, encompassing people of various faiths and ethnicities.
•  A Spectrum of Beliefs: The Mongol Khans themselves followed different faiths, including Shamanism, Buddhism, Christianity, and eventually Islam. 
• Harmony in Diversity:  Despite this religious diversity, the Mongol rulers recruited administrators and armed contingents from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, creating a multi-ethnic, multilingual, and multi-religious regime. 
  • This unique approach, where personal beliefs did not dictate public policy, served as an ideological model for later regimes, such as the Mughals of India.
• Mongol Empire’s Enigmatic Origins: The documentation on the Mongols makes it challenging to fully grasp the inspiration behind the confederation of fragmented groups that aimed to create an empire. 
• Genghis Khan’s Inspirational Force: The Mongol empire underwent changes in different milieus, but the founder’s inspiration remained a powerful force. 
  • Even rulers like Timur hesitated to declare themselves monarchs unless they had Genghis Khanid descent, showcasing the enduring influence of Genghis Khan.
• Contemporary Legacy: In modern times, Mongolia, after decades of Soviet control, is redefining its identity as an independent nation. 
  • Genghis Khan is embraced as a national hero, and venerated publicly, and his achievements are recounted with pride. 
• Genghis Khan as a Catalyst: At a crucial point in Mongolia’s history, Genghis Khan serves as an iconic figure mobilizing memories of a great past to forge a national identity that can guide the nation into the future.

Conclusion

Both the late Roman Empire and the Mongol Empire exemplify the complexity of social change. 

• The second half of the Roman Empire struggled with internal conflicts and saw changes in language, economy and social structures. 
• Meanwhile, Genghis Khan’s strategic philosophy moved the Mongols from nomadic ethnic groups to professional dynasties. 
• Despite the sense of victory behind it, Genghis Khan was a unifying force among the Mongols. 
• Both narratives highlight complex historical changes, challenge monolithic perspectives, and define the identities of their respective countries. 
• These narratives are woven with triumph and innovation, revealing subtle interactions between nomadic traditions and sedentary governance.

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