Fabric of Social Structure in Sociology

Sociology has a special set of terms and concepts such as status and roles, social control, stratification and Social structure, etc. which are also used by common men in their everyday life. However,  the commonsensical understanding and sociological meaning of terminologies and concepts vary to a great extent. For instance, many consider Institution as a physical building or infrastructure whereas in sociology it refers to the established patterns of beliefs, behaviours and relationships that organise social life.

So understanding the terminologies and concepts such as reference group, division of labour, alienation, cultural lag, socialisation and Social structure, etc. become crucial to studying sociology and deciphering the social realities

Social Structure: A deep dive into Social Groups and Society

• Essence of Social Groups in Society: A social group refers to a collectivity of continuously interacting persons who share common interest, culture, values and norms within a given society.
• Characteristics of Social Group within social structure:
  • Persistent interaction to provide continuity.
  • A stable pattern of these interactions.
  • A sense of belonging to identify with other members 
  • Acceptance of common norms and values.
  • A definable social structure.

Types of Social Groups in the Framework of Social Structure:

• Primary Social Groups: Forming the Foundations of Personal Connections: It refers to a small group of people connected by intimate and face-to-face association and cooperation.
  • Example: Family, village and groups of friends. 
    • Members of these groups have a sense of belonging and are person-oriented.
• Secondary Social Groups: Formal Relationships in Society: These are the groups which are relatively large in size, and maintain formal and impersonal relationships. 
  • Example: Schools, government offices, hospitals, and student associations. 
    • These are goal-oriented
• Community Bonds: Personal and Enduring Relationships in Social Groups: It is a social group where human relationships are highly personal, intimate and enduring. 
  • Example: Family, a group of real friends or a close-knit group.
• Association in Society: Impersonal and Transitory Human Relationship: It is a social group where human relationships are impersonal, superficial and transitory. 
  • Example: Modern institutes such as Commerce and industry are examples of associations as they require a more calculating, rational and self-interesting attitude.
• In-Group: Psychological Bonds and Social Identity in Society: An in-group is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. 
  • Example: Students of a particular school may form an ‘in-group’ against those who do not belong to the school.
• Out-group: Understanding Social Dynamics and Hostility in Society: An out-group is one to which the members of an in-group do not belong. 
  • Members of an out-group often face hostile reactions from the members of the in-group. 
  • Example:  Migrants often face hostility as they are considered as members of an out-group by natives.
• Reference Group: Shaping Aspirations and Identifying with Societal Ideals: The groups whose lifestyles are emulated are known as reference groups. 
  • People though do not belong to their reference groups they identify themselves with that group. 
  • Example: During the colonial period, many Indians imitated the lifestyles of Englishmen. In that sense, Englishmen could be seen as a reference group for those Indians.
• Peer Groups: Dynamics of Social Bonds and influence in similar-Age circles: It is a kind of primary group, usually formed between people of similar age or people belonging to a common professional group. 
  • Peer pressure refers to the social pressure exerted by one’s peers.

Social Stratification: Examining Hierarchies in Social Structure

• Definition and Characteristics of Social Stratification: Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. 
  • Example: The caste system.
• Evolution of Social Stratification: Four Historical Systems: There are four historical systems of social stratification such as slavery, caste, estate and class.
  • Slavery: In this system masters owned slaves.
  • Caste: In this system, castes are ranked on the basis of ritual hierarchy.
  • Estate: Feudal lords are land-owning groups whereas serfs work in the field of lords.
  • Class: This system is prevalent in modern societies, in which individuals are ranked on the basis of income and wealth.

Types of Social Stratification: How do they influence Social Structure?

Caste Stratification in Social structure:

• Ascribed Status in Caste Stratification: Birth as the Determinant: In a caste stratification system an individual’s position depends on the status ascribed by birth rather than on achievement.
• Traditional Varna System: Four-Fold Hierarchy: The traditional system conceptualised four-fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. 
  • But, in reality, there are innumerable occupation-based caste groups, called Jatis.
• Hierarchical Grading: Purity and Pollution in Caste Structures: Each caste group in the caste structure was ranked in terms of its purity or pollution, relative to others.
  • On the basis of purity- pollution norm the Brahmins were considered superior to all others. 
  • The Panchamas, sometimes called the ‘outcastes’ inferior to all other castes.
• Change in Caste system: Modernization, Urbanization, and Transformation: The caste system has undergone considerable changes over the years. 
  • The practice of endogamy and untouchability is declining due to modernisation and urbanisation.
  • Democracy has affected the caste system. Castes as interest groups have gained strength.
  • Discriminated castes are asserting their democratic rights in society.

Class Stratification in Social Structure: Perspectives and Dynamics 

• In class stratification, an individual or group of people graded one above others, on the basis of economic and achieved status, such as rich over poor.
• Marxist Perspective on Class Stratification: Understanding the role of Production 
  • According to Marxist theory social classes are stratified on the basis of their relationship with means of production.
  • Groups owning means of production such as land or factories are called the capitalist class graded above the group owning nothing but their own labour is called the working class.
• Weberian Perspective on Class:  Life Chances Beyond Economics
  • According to Weber, people sharing similar ‘ life chances’ ( the rewards and advantages afforded by market capacity ) belong to the same class.
    • Example: Doctors, engineers etc.
  • According to Weber Inequality is not limited to economic relations. People have unequal access to prestige as well as political power.
• Functionalist Perspective on Class: Reward Systems and Social Stratification
  • According to functionalists, no society is “classless” or unstratified. 
  • To attract the most qualified persons to the most important positions society provides the highest reward to some important positions. 
    • This results in differential earnings leading to social stratification.

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