Context

Diplomats met in Paris to raise humanitarian aid for the northeast African country of Sudan grappling with a year-long period of conflict. 

Sudan Conflict

• Sudan Conflict Background: Fighting broke out in the country last year among rival groups who are fighting for power. 
  • Among those affected were numerous Indian workers, notably from the Hakki Pikki tribal community of Karnataka, who were present in Sudan at the time.
• Indian Embassy Alert in Khartoum: The Indian Embassy in the capital city of Khartoum issued a notice urging Indians to exercise “utmost precautions.” 
• Impending Famine and Humanitarian Crisis in Sudan: Today, Sudan is close to a famine and around 25 million – half the total population are in need of assistance. Life as usual has been severely affected. 

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Why is Sudan at War?

• Violence Amidst Efforts to Shift from Autocracy: Sudan is seeing violence and fighting among groups amid an attempt to transition its polity from an autocracy. 
• Ousting of Omar al-Bashir: In 2019, military generals ousted Omar al-Bashir amid a popular uprising. 
  • People within the country and major powers were critical of his rule on account of corruption, rising costs of living towards the late 2010s, and repression of social groups.
• Sudan’s Ties with Osama Bin Laden and International Response: Between the years 1992-1996, Sudan also played host to Osama Bin Laden. 
  • The US then declared Sudan as a “state sponsor of terrorism” in 1993 and the United Nations imposed sanctions on it the next year.

• Power-sharing Arrangement: Following the ousting of his regime in 2019, a power-sharing arrangement between civilian groups and the military was established.
  • Abdalla Hamdok assumed the role of Prime Minister until elections could be conducted.
• Occurrence of Military Coup:  A military coup under General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, head of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), took place in 2021. 
  • The RSF was founded by the former dictatorial ruler Omar al-Bashir as an Arab counterinsurgency militia. 
  • Bashir wanted to crush a rebellion in the region of Darfur that began more than 20 years ago due to the political and economic marginalisation of the local population.

International Peace Efforts in Sudan

Talks led by Saudi Arabia and the United States in Jeddah in 2023 aimed to mediate a ceasefire between the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and the Sudanese army.

About Sudan:

Sudan is a country in Northeast Africa with the capital city Khartoum. 

• Khartoum, is located roughly in the center of the country, at the junction of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers.
• Sudan Bordering countries: It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Egypt to the north, Eritrea to the northeast, Ethiopia to the southeast, Libya to the northwest, South Sudan to the south, and the Red Sea. 

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Context

According to the Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA), Sapporo, the main city of Japan’s second-largest island of Hokkaido, recorded 26 degrees Celsius on April 15, 2024.

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Climate Change in Hokkaido, Japan

• Earliest Summer Day: Sapporo, famous for its snow and ice sights, experienced its earliest occurrence of a temperature classified by the JMA as a ‘summer day.‘
• Loss of the Garden of the Gods: This means that Hokkaido, long considered Japan’s last wild frontier, will no longer be the ‘Garden of the Gods’ as it was known to be, by the Ainu, Japan’s indigenous people.
• Warming Archipelago: The Japanese archipelago, which stretches from the Ryukyu islands (including Okinawa) near Taiwan to Hokkaido near Russian-administered Sakhalin, is warming up.
  • An archipelago is a group of islands closely scattered in a body of water. 
  • According to a study, in Japan, the temperature increased by 1.28°C/100 years from 1898 to 2021 (JMA 2021), and the three recent years, 2019-2021, are the warmest since 1898. 

• • In urban areas, a much larger temperature rise has been observed because of the urban heat island.
• Impact: The biggest impact is being seen in Hokkaido, which borders the Sea of Okhotsk near the Russian Far East.

• Decrease in Sea Ice: A study by Hokkaido University researchers reported that sea ice “in the Sea of Okhotsk is not only dwindling in terms of coverage area, but has also lost 30 percent of its thickness across a span of 30 years.
• Impact on The Ainu: As Hokkaido warms, it will also have an impact on the Ainu, who are a marginalized people in Japan since coming into contact with ethnic Japanese (Yamato people) 400 years ago.

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Conclusion

As Japan confronts its own challenges related to a swiftly declining population, the recent temperature recorded in Sapporo serves as a stark reminder of the accelerating impact of climate change on the archipelago.

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Context

The utilization of hydrocarbons for powering large engines polluting the air and water contributed to the phenomenon of global warming.

About Hydrocarbons

The term ‘hydrocarbon’ means compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons are the critical energy storage molecules within all major types of fossil fuels (including coal, oil, and natural gas) and biofuels. 

• Burning hydrocarbons in the presence of oxygen (O2) produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

• Formation: 

  • The geological forces within the Earth’s crust subjected dead organisms to heat and pressure, resulting in the accumulation of hydrocarbons within rock formations. 

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• Forms of  Hydrocarbons: 

  • The most common forms in which these hydrocarbons exist in subterranean rock formations are natural gas, coal, crude oil, and petroleum. 
    • They are usually situated in subterranean reservoirs formed when a denser, more durable rock layer rests atop a less resistant one. This creates a lid that causes hydrocarbons to accumulate below it. 
    • These formations play a crucial role because without them, the hydrocarbons would rise to the surface and disperse.

• Uses of Hydrocarbons:

  • Feedstock in petrochemical plants to make chemicals, plastics, and synthetic rubber
  • Fuels for heating, cooking, and drying
  • Fuels for transportation
  • Additives for motor gasoline production
  • Diluent (a diluting or thinning agent) for transporting heavy crude oil

• Assessment of Porosity and Permeability: 

  • Experts use the tools, methods, and techniques of the field of petroleum geology to assess these rocks, including to check for their porosity and permeability. 
    • If a rock formation is highly porous, it could hold a larger quantity of hydrocarbons. Similarly, the more permeable a rock is, more easily the hydrocarbons will flow through it.

• Source of Hydrocarbon: 

  • The primary source of hydrocarbons in this rocky underground is called kerogen: lumps of organic matter. 
    • Kerogen can be deposited from three possible sources: as the remains of a lake (lacustrine), of a larger marine ecosystem, or of a terrestrial ecosystem. 

• Kerogen Degradation and Hydrocarbon Yield: 

  • Over time, the rocks enclosing the kerogen can undergo heating and compression, exerting pressure on the kerogen, leading to its degradation. 
    • Depending on its origin, lacustrine kerogen produces waxy oils, marine kerogen yields oil and gas, while terrestrial kerogen results in light oils, gas, and coal.

• Source Rock Assessment:  

  • The rock containing the kerogen is called the source rock, and petroleum geologists are tasked with locating it, understanding its geophysical and thermal characteristics, and characterising its ability to yield hydrocarbons. 
• They also undertake modelling activities informed by observational data and dig smaller exploration wells to estimate the amount of hydrocarbons there, and report it to the relevant regulatory body.

Hydrocarbon Potential Of Sedimentary Basins of India

• Category-I: These are commercially produced covering 30% of total basinal area (1.0 million sq km) and a total hydrocarbon of 21,487 MMTOE, which is 86% of the country’s total that includes discovered as well as risked undiscovered potential.  These 7 basins are namely:
  • Krishna-Godavari (KG)
  • Mumbai Offshore
  • Assam Shelf
  • Rajasthan
  • Cauvery
  • Assam- Arakan Fold Belt
  • Cambay. 
• Category-II basins: These which are discovered but awaiting development, cover 0.78 million sq km (23% of total basinal area), holding 8% (1,951 MMTOE) of the total hydrocarbon in place. These include:
  • Saurashtra
  • Kutch
  • Vindhyan
  • Mahanadi
  • Andaman 

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP)

HELP is an exploration and production policy of the Government of India that replaced the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP). 

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• Objective: To enhance domestic oil and gas production by intensifying exploration activity and investment. 
• Open acreage licensing policy: Through this, an explorer can study and bid for any block in accordance with its competitive advantage.
• Revenue sharing model: This encourages cost efficiency in mining operations by replacing the profit-sharing contract established by NELP. 
  • The contractor pays the government a share of its revenue (net of royalty) as per the contract.
• Marketing and pricing freedom: The contractor can sell crude oil in the domestic market through a transparent bidding process. 

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Context

IMD in a press briefing has forecast that the rains in June-September will be 6% more than these months, an annual average of 87 cm.

India to Get Above Normal Rain this Monsoon Season 2024

• The forecasts also indicate that “above-normal” rain was likely over most parts of the country except northwest, east and northeast India.
• The models indicate a 30% chance of monsoon rains being over 10%, categorized as ‘excess’.
  • Usually the chances of excess rain  in any given year  is only a 17%

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• Factors: 
  • Emerging La Nina: The  El Nino  is expected to fade away by June and progress to La Nina (a converse cooling effect in the Central Pacific  region that is  usually linked to surplus rainfall by the second half of the monsoon  ie. August and September).
    • El Nino last year dented India’s monsoon by 6%. 
  • A positive Indian Ocean Dipole (A cooler than normal Indian Ocean in the east as compared to the west) though currently ‘neutral’, it is expected to turn positive by August.
  • It will help bring rain to several States in southern India. 
    • Below normal snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and Eurasia: The snow cover level in Eurasia and Indian monsoon shares an inverse relationship
• Approach used by IMD to forecast monsoon: 
  • Statistical Approach: To  draw upon IMDs vast historical database of over 150 years to correlate certain global meteorological parameters such as ocean temperatures and snow cover in Europe etc. to the performance of the monsoon. 
  • Dynamic Approach: It is to simulate the weather across the globe on a particular day, and to extrapolate this weather into any future day or time period desired. 

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Context

In a newly published research, a new genetic variant linked to Parkinson’s disease has been discovered that sheds light on the evolutionary origin of multiple forms of familial parkinsonism.

Newly Discovered Genetic Variant that Causes Parkinson’s Disease Clarifies

• This discovery presents opportunities for better understanding and treatment of the disease.
• Newly Identified Genetic Mutation: Using the linkage analysis, a new genetic mutation has been identified for Parkinson’s disease called RAB32 Ser71Arg. 
• Mutation Linked to Parkinsonism: This mutation was linked to parkinsonism in three families and found in 13 other people in several countries, including Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Turkey, Tunisia, the U.S. and the U.K.

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• Identical fragment of chromosome 6: The affected individuals and families share an identical fragment of chromosome 6 that contains RAB32 Ser71Arg. 
  • This indicates that these patients share a common ancestor implying that there are likely numerous additional cousins yet to be identified.

Mechanism of New Genetic Variant RAB32 Ser71Arg

• Interactions with Parkinsonism Proteins and Cellular Dysfunction: RAB32 Ser71Arg interacts with several proteins previously linked to early- and late-onset parkinsonism as well as nonfamilial Parkinson’s disease. 
  • The RAB32 Ser71Arg variant also causes similar dysfunction within cells.
• Optimization of Neurotransmitter Dopamine: Together, the proteins encoded by these linked genes optimize levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. 
  • Dopamine is lost in Parkinson’s as the cells that produce it progressively die. 
  • Together, these linked genes and the proteins they encode regulate specialized autophagy processes.  In addition, these encoded proteins enable immunity within cells.
•  Immune Response Enhancement: Such linked genes support the idea that these causes of inherited parkinsonism evolved to improve survival in early life because they enhance immune response to pathogens.
• Insights into the Origin of Parkinson’s Mutations: RAB32 Ser71Arg suggests how and why many mutations have originated, despite creating a susceptible genetic background for Parkinson’s in later life.
  • RAB32 Ser71Arg marks the first instance where researchers have established a direct connection between prior linked findings in genetic research.
• Coordination of Cell Functions: The proteins encoded bring together three important functions of the cell: autophagy, immunity and mitochondrial function. 
  • While autophagy releases energy stored in the cell’s trash, this needs to be coordinated with mitochondria which serve as the primary energy source.
  • Mitochondria also help to control cell immunity because they evolved from bacteria the cell’s immune system recognizes as “self” rather than as an invading pathogen to destroy.

About Parkinson’s Disease

• About: It is a neurodegenerative movement disorder that progresses relentlessly. It gradually impairs a person’s ability to function until they ultimately become immobile and often develop dementia. 
• Contributing Factors: Many factors may contribute to the development of Parkinson’s, both environmental and genetic. 
• Lack of Adequate Treatment: There is currently no treatment to slow or halt Parkinson’s disease. Available drugs don’t slow disease progression and can treat only certain symptoms. 
  • Medications that work early in the disease generally become ineffective over the years, necessitating increased doses that can lead to disabling side effects. 
  • Thus, there is a need to understand the fundamental molecular cause of Parkinson’s to develop a medication to stop the disease from steadily worsening in patients.

Approaches to Map the Genetic Blueprint of Parkinson’s

• Linkage Analysis: 

  • Targeting Rare Familial Cases with Hereditary Transmission: It focuses on rare families wherein parkinsonism or neurological disorders sharing symptomatic similarities with Parkinson’s are hereditarily transmitted. 
    • This technique looks for cases where a disease-causing version of the gene and Parkinson’s appear to be passed down in the same person. 
  • Criteria for Family-Based Studies: It requires information on your family tree, clinical data and DNA samples. 
    • Relatively few families, such as those with more than two living, affected relatives willing to participate, are needed to expedite new genetic discoveries.
  • Significance: “Linkage” between a pathogenic genetic variant and disease development is so significant that it can inform a diagnosis. 
    • It has also become the basis of many lab models used to study the consequences of gene dysfunction and how to fix it.
    • Linkage studies have identified pathogenic mutations in over 20 genes. 
    • Many patients in families with parkinsonism have symptoms that are indistinguishable from typical, late-onset Parkinson’s. 

• Genome-wide Association Studies(GWAS): 

  • It compares genetic data from patients with Parkinson’s with unrelated people of the same age, gender and ethnicity who don’t have the disease. 
    • Assessing Frequency of Common Gene Variants: This involves assessing how frequently in both groups over 2 million common gene variants appear. 
      • Researchers need to gather clinical data and DNA samples from over 100,000 people because these studies require analyzing so many gene variants.
    • Applicability of GWAS: Combining the data of these studies has identified many locations in the genome that contribute to the risk of developing Parkinson’s. 
    • Aggregate Analysis: Currently, there are over 92 locations in the genome that contain about 350 genes potentially involved in the disease. 
      • However, GWAS locations can be considered only in aggregate and individual results are not helpful in diagnosis nor in disease modeling, as the contribution of these individual genes to disease risk is so minimal.

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Significance of Study

• Detection of Cellular Dysfunctions: The analysis of genetic data can now detect cellular dysfunctions characteristic of Parkinson’s disease.
• Role of Environmental Factors: This will help researchers identify environmental factors that influence the risk of developing Parkinson’s, as well as medications that may help protect against the disease.
• Prediction of Disease: Each new gene that researchers identify can improve our ability to predict and prevent Parkinson’s.

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Context

Researchers in South Florida are pioneering an innovative approach to safeguarding laboratory-grown coral from predatory fish, utilizing biodegradable materials to aid in coral reef restoration efforts.

Protecting Coral through Coral Fort Initiative

• Marine researcher Kyle Pisano and his partner, Kirk Dotson, have developed the Coral Fort—a biodegradable cage crafted partly from drinking straws—to enhance the survival rate of transplanted coral. 
• Predators like parrot fish pose a significant threat to newly transplanted coral, often causing survival rates to plummet below 40%. 

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Coral Fort – A biodegradable Cage 

• The cage comprises a limestone disc encircled by eight vertical drinking straws made from a biodegradable material called polyhydroxyalkanoate ( a biopolymer derived from canola oil). 
• These straws, initially designed for boba drinks, provide adequate protection for the coral before harmlessly dissolving in the ocean.
• The Coral Fort, designed to dissolve over time, eliminates the need for maintenance or removal.
• Significance : 
  • It helps in reducing  the labor-intensive process of protecting and maintaining coral. 
  • This innovative solution not only enhances the survival of transplanted coral but also streamlines restoration efforts crucial for preserving oceanic biodiversity and coastal resilience against natural disasters like hurricanes.

What are Corals?

• Corals are colonial marine invertebrates of the phylum Cnidaria. 
• Polyp: An individual coral is known as a polyp. 
  • A polyp is a sac-like animal,excretes an exoskeleton near the base. 
  • Polyps form a symbiotic relationship with plant-like cells called zooxanthellae (unicellular dinoflagellates).
• Symbiotic Relationship: Coral Polyp can ingest tiny organisms called plankton & other small creatures but still majority of their energy and nutrients they get from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues which also is responsible for giving the corals its color. In return corals provide the zooxanthellae with shelter and protection.

About Coral Reefs 

• Coral reefs are formed when thousands of polyps living together in a coral colony secretes calcium carbonate exoskeleton beneath it. Over time, the skeletons of many coral colonies add up to build the structure of a coral reef.
• Coral reefs, often referred to as the “rainforest of the sea,” are crucial ecosystems supporting over 25% of marine species. However, the decline of coral populations due to various factors, including rising ocean temperatures, has prompted urgent conservation measures. 

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Significance of Coral Reef Ecosystems

• Coral reefs protect coastlines from harsh ocean storms and floods. 
• They serve as nurseries, and breeding and feeding grounds for marine wildlife. 
• They provide livelihood opportunities through tourism and fishery for coastal communities. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), about 500 million people worldwide are dependent on coral reefs for livelihood.

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In March 2024, India completed its first-ever winter expedition successfully in the Arctic. 

• Their destination was Himadri, India’s research station located in the International Arctic Research undefined at Svalbard, Norway.
• Organization to undertake winter mission to the Arctic: India’s National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR).

Winter Expedition in the Arctic Region

• Objectives:

  • To gather data on atmospheric phenomena like the aurora borealis and atmospheric electricity during polar nights.
    • On polar nights,  there is no sunlight for nearly 24 hours and sub-zero temperatures (as low as -15 degrees Celsius).
  • To conduct space-specific studies to better understand these processes.

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• Observations and Monitoring Process:

  • During polar nights, scientists conducted atmospheric observations.
  • They  monitored variations in sea ice and studied the effects of precipitation and aerosols on climate change.

• Benefits of Expedition

• • The research is very helpful in providing insights into how the Arctic climate interacts with the Indian monsoon system.
    • It will contribute to a broader understanding of the impacts of global warming.
  • In winter and summer, thunderstorms and lightning create different kinds of electric fields.
    • Therefore, expedition is very useful in understanding the electrical properties of thunderstorms, especially in the polar winter.

Reason for Undertaking Winter Mission to the Arctic Region

• Scientific Discoveries: Recent research revealed a faster-than-expected rate of Arctic warming.
  • This warming is linked to extreme weather events impacting India’s climate, prompting policymakers to take action and gather more data through winter missions.
• Economic potential: The opening of Arctic sea routes, particularly the Northern Sea Route, can present immense opportunities to reduce shipping costs and transit times for Indian trade.
  • This could benefit India by cutting down expenses for shipping companies, saving time, fuel, and improving security when transporting goods.
• Geopolitical Landscape: China’s growing Arctic investments, particularly its expanded access to the Northern Sea Route through Russia, is a matter of concern.
  • Russia’s increased reliance on its nuclear deterrent in the Kola Peninsula adds to these concerns.
    • This strategic concern motivated India to increase its Arctic presence, including undertaking winter missions.
  • Apart from the above, India is increasing its interest in the Arctic region, largely due to the conflict between Russia and Ukraine.
    • Suspension of various cooperative forums in the region has further exacerbated the situation.

About Arctic Region

• Arctic Region is the northernmost region of Earth.
• This region is entirely covered by water, much of it frozen.
  • It is a polar region. 
• It comprises the northern parts of Canada, the United States, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Greenland.
• Climatic conditions in the arctic region: cold winters and cool summers.
  • Most of its precipitation falls as snow.
  • Majority of the region gets less than 50 cm (20 in).
• Flora and fauna: Arctic vegetation includes dwarf shrubs, grasses, herbs, lichens, and mosses.
  • It  grows close to the ground, forming tundra.
  • In the Arctic, trees cannot grow, but in the warmer regions, shrubs are common and can reach heights of up to 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches).

Significance of the Arctic Region

• Observer Status in the Arctic Council: India is one of thirteen countries with Observer status in the Arctic Council, showing its importance in Arctic affairs.
• Abundance of Resources: The Arctic region is rich in natural resources and has both mineral and animal resources. 
  • Minerals include iron ore, copper, nickle, zinc phosphates and diamonds and oil, making it valuable.
  • Abundant fisheries are the living  resources of the Arctic . 
• Importance of Shipping Routes: Many shipping routes pass through the Arctic, which is important for global trade.
• Adverse Impact of Climate Change: Climate change is not only affecting the availability of minerals and oil in the Arctic, but it’s also changing the routes that ships take around the world.

India’s Science History in the Arctic Region

India has been involved in Arctic affairs since 1920, starting with the signing of the Svalbard Treaty in Paris.

• Research Initiatives:

  • Since 2007, India has conducted various research missions in the Arctic, focusing on microbiology, atmospheric sciences, and geology.
  • In 2013, India gained Observer status in the Arctic Council.
    • Subsequently, India established research infrastructure, including a multi-sensor moored observatory and an atmospheric laboratory in Svalbard.

• India-Norway Collaboration in the Arctic Region:

  • Since the late 1980s, India and Norway have collaborated on Arctic and Antarctic research, focusing on their impact on South Asia.
  • A partnership with Norway would mainly focus on scientific research and protecting the environment from climate change. 
    • These areas are two of the six key aspects of India’s Arctic Policy, which also includes 
      • economic and human development
      • transportation and connectivity
      • governance and international cooperation
      • national capacity building
  • Norway could assist India in developing a sustainable policy that balances the interests of the scientific community and industry.
    • Partnering with Norway could greatly benefit India by increasing its involvement in the Arctic Council’s working groups, addressing issues such as the blue economy, connectivity, maritime transportation, investment, infrastructure, and responsible resource development.

• India’s Arctic Policy

• • Collaboration with Arctic nations: India’s current policy aims to collaborate with Arctic nations in promoting green energy and sustainable industries to enhance its reputation as a responsible stakeholder.
    • Collaborations with Denmark and Finland focus on areas like waste management, pollution control, renewable energy, and green technology.

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The annual rate of inflation based on the All India Wholesale Price Index (WPI) number is 0.53% (Provisional) for the month of March, 2024 (over March, 2023). 

Wholesale Inflation India Rises to 0.53% in March 2024

Reason for Positive rate of Inflation: Positive rate of inflation in March, 2024 is primarily due to increase in prices of food articles, electricity, crude petroleum & natural gas, machinery & equipment and other manufacturing etc.

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Wholesale Price Index (WPI)

Wholesale Price Index (WPI) represents the price of goods at a wholesale stage i.e. goods that are sold in bulk and traded between organizations instead of consumers. 

• Released by:  The Economic Advisor in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. 
• Base year: 2011-12
  • WPI covers only goods, services are excluded. 
  • WPI is primarily used as a GDP deflator. 
  • WPI reckons only basic prices and does not include taxes, rebate/trade discounts, transport and other charges.

• Components and weightage in Wholesale Price Index basket:

• • Primary articles: 20.12 percent 
  • Manufactured products:  64.97 percent 
  • Fuel and power: 14.91 percent

Factors Responsible for Wholesale Price Index Inflation

• Imbalance in the supply and demand chain
• Changes or alterations in government policies
• Increase in the cost of production
• Currency exchange rate fluctuations
• Increase in the money supply
• Increase in government spending
• Changes in the level of economic activity
• Increase in rates of interest
• Unforeseen natural disasters or crop failures
• Increase in taxes, duty fees, and freight charges
• Higher demand for goods and services
• Unfavourable global economic conditions

How Does Wholesale Price Index Inflation Work?

• Close Monitoring: Policymakers, businesses, and investors closely monitor WPI inflation since it can have a significant impact on the country’s overall economy. 
• Impact of upsurge in the WPI inflation:
  • High inflation leads to higher rates of interest, thus, slowing down economic growth.
  • It can also lead to a decrease in purchasing power for consumers.
  • High inflation can also make exports less competitive in the global market.
  • Businesses may also experience challenges in terms of planning and budgeting.
• Impact of low WPI inflation: It may indicate a weak economy and may lead to a decrease in overall investment and consumption.

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Difference between Wholesale Price Index and Consumer Price Index Inflation

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Entrepreneur and pilot Gopi Thotakura is set to become the first Indian to venture into space as a tourist on the NS-25 mission of Blue Origin Company.

Gopi Thotakura to be the first Indian Space Tourist

• First Indian Selected for Space Tourism: Gopi Thotakura is set to become the first Indian to venture into space as a tourist on the NS-25 mission of Blue Origin — a company founded by Jeff Bezos, who is also the founder of Amazon.
• Second Indian Selected for Space Tourism: Thotakura has been selected as one of the six crew members for the NS-25 mission whose launch date is yet to be announced. 
  • If the mission is successful, Thotakura would be the second Indian to go into space. 
  • The first one was Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, who flew to the Salyut 7 space station on a Soviet spacecraft in 1984.
• Growth of Space Tourism: According to media reports, in 2023, the space tourism market was valued at $848.28 million. It is expected to grow to $27,861.99 million by 2032. 

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What is Space Tourism?

Space tourism is a section of the aviation sector which seeks to provide tourists with the opportunity to become astronauts and experience space travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes.

• Types of space tourism: 

• • Sub-orbital Spacecraft: It takes passengers just beyond the Kármán line. The passengers get to spend a few minutes in outer space and then come back to Earth. 
    • The NS-25 mission, which Thotakura is a part of, is a sub-orbital mission. 
      • Thotakura and his other crew members will be taken to outer space via New Shepard, a fully reusable sub-orbital launch vehicle developed specifically for space tourism by Blue Origin.
  • Orbital Spacecraft: It takes passengers much further than the Kármán line. Usually, passengers can spend from a couple of days to more than a week at an altitude of nearly 1.3 million feet.
    • In September 2021, Space X’s Falcon 9 took four passengers to an altitude of 160 km where they spent three days orbiting the Earth.

Challenges with Space Tourism

• High Cost: Currently, space tourism is expensive. A passenger generally has to pay at least a million dollars to reach outer space which is out of reach for almost everyone.
• Environmental Concerns: Space tourism may lead to environmental damage as rockets emit gaseous and solid chemicals directly into the upper atmosphere.
  • As per a 2022 study done by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),  the soot emissions from rocket launches are far more effective at warming the atmosphere compared to other sources.
• Safety Concerns:  According to a report by Astronomy MagazineDespite high safety standards, a total of 676 people have flown into space and 19 of them have died, as of November 2023.
  • This means that approximately 3% of astronauts died during their space flight which is quite a high fatality rate.

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Recently, a new bill has been introduced in the US Congress aims to force AI companies to disclose their use of copyrighted material in training their generative AI models. 

Generative AI Copyright Infringements Around the World 

• An AI service provider in China recently has been found liable for copyright infringement and ordered to pay damages over those generative AI images.
• The New York Times, the world’s largest newspaper by number of subscribers, is suing OpenAI and Microsoft for infringing the copyright of articles. 
• Universal Music Group, the largest record company, is suing Anthropic for using its song lyrics without permission. 
• Getty, one of the biggest image libraries, is suing Stability AI for copying its images (as well as misusing its trademark). 

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Copyright Infringement Challenges in Generative AI Content

• Copyright Infringement: 

  • Using copyrighted content and material without permission can be considered copyright infringement, even if for training purposes.
    • It includes copyrighted material such as images, texts and music.

• Used for Training: 

  • AIs are trained on vast quantities of human-made work, from novels to photos and songs. It requires large amounts of data to train their algorithms effectively.
    • These training data are broken down into “tokens” (numerical representations of bits of text, image or sound) and the model learns by trial and error how tokens are normally combined. 
    • Following a prompt from a user, a trained model can then make creations of its own. More and better training data means better outputs.

• Arguments in Favour for Use of Copyrighted Content:

  • Applicability of Fair Use Doctrine: Fair use as a doctrine goes back to 1841, to a case about copying the writings of George Washington. It is a US concept that permits limited unauthorized use of copyrighted content. 
  • Balancing Factors: Fair Use involves balancing four factors:
    • Purpose and character of use
    • Nature of copyrighted content
    • Amount used
    • Impact on market value of original
  • Transformative Use: Transformative uses (meaning it adds something new or different to the original work) more likely to be fair use.
    • OpenAI argues training is transformative and does not replace New York Times.

• Arguments in Against for Use of Copyrighted Content:

  • Legality & Ethical Implications: AI technologies can be used to replicate or mimic existing copyrighted works. The algorithms can analyze and generate content that closely resembles protected works, raising questions about the legality and ethical implications of such replication.
    • Many AI companies have become reluctant to provide information about what data their models are trained on, citing competitive confidentiality. 
      • Example: OpenAI’s past disclosures show that its GPT-3 model was trained on sources including the Common Crawl, a scraping of the open internet which includes masses of copyrighted data.
  • Lack of Control: Copyright holders might lose control over their works if they are freely used for training AI models.
  • Lead to Inequality: Large tech companies with access to vast datasets benefit more from this practice, potentially creating unfair competition.
  • Copyrights & Copywrongs: While the lawyers sharpen their arguments, deals are being done. In some cases, suing is being used as leverage and lawsuits are negotiated by other means. 
    • Even once trained, AIs need ongoing access to human-made content to stay up-to-date, and some rights-holders have done deals to keep them supplied with fresh material. 
    • Most rights-holders are privately pessimistic. A survey of media executives in 56 countries by the Reuters Institute found that 48% expected there to be “very little” money from AI licensing deals. 

• Regulation in India On AI Copy Infringement:

• • The Indian Copyright Act, 1957: It grants exclusive rights to creators (authors, artists, etc.) over their original works for a specific duration. 
    • Using a copyrighted work without the owner’s permission, constitutes copyright infringement. 
  • Copyright on Generated AI: In India, there is no specific litigation in the context of text and data mining by AI. 
    • In the Copyright Act of 1957 in India, there is no way a non-human can be granted copyright protection. 
  • The Patents Act, 1970: It provides specific provisions for fair dealing and enumerated exceptions to copyright infringement.
    • It grants patent rights to discoveries that cover innovative and innovative processes, products, or articles of manufacturing.
    • It also doesn’t have provision with respect to copyright laws to safeguard any creation that is wholly generated by AI.
  • Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023: It plays a pivotal role in addressing data protection concerns. However, it exhibits certain gaps, such as legitimizing data scraping by AI companies when data is publicly available.

About Generative AI (Artificial Intelligence)

• It is a type of AI technology that can produce various types of content, including text, imagery, audio and synthetic data.
• It utilizes deep learning, neural networks, and machine learning techniques to enable computers to produce content that closely resembles human-created output autonomously. 
  • Examples: ChatGPT, DALL-E and Bard.

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Significance of Generative AI

• Creativity and Novelty: 

  • It enables the creation of new and unique content, whether it’s images, music, or text.
    • Example: Automated Journalism: Generative AI can produce written content for news outlets, summarizing events, financial reports, and sports matches quickly and accurately, freeing human journalists to focus on in-depth stories and analysis.

• Automation and Efficiency: 

  • It automates the process of content creation, saving time and resources.
    • Example: Graphic Design: AI can create logos, marketing materials, and other graphics, enabling designers to rapidly prototype ideas and iterate on concepts.
    • Architecture and Engineering: AI can generate building designs and urban plans, considering optimal use of space, environmental impact, and aesthetic appeal.

• Personalization and Customization: 

  • Generative models can be trained on specific data or preferences, allowing for personalized recommendations, tailored content, and customized user experiences.
    • Example: Generative AI can create customized educational content, adapting to the learning pace and style of individual students, making education more accessible and effective.

• Exploration and Inspiration: 

  • Generative AI can provide inspiration to artists, designers, and writers by generating diverse variations, exploring creative possibilities, and serving as a starting point for further creative exploration.
    • Example: OpenAI, which makes perhaps the most advanced generative AI models, is valued at nearly $90bn; Microsoft, its partner, has become the world’s most valuable company, with a market capitalization of $3.2trn.

• Examples of Generative AI

• • ChatGPT, made by OpenAI, can be used for recreation of long newspaper articles that it appears to have memorized.
    • Claude, a chatbot made by Anthropic, can be made to repeat lyrics from well-known songs. 
    • Stable Diffusion, made by Stability AI, reproduces features of others’ images, including the watermark of Getty, on whose archive it was trained.

Concerns with Using Generative AI

• Ethical Concerns: 

  • Generative AI raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding the misuse of synthetic media, deep fakes, and potential infringement of intellectual property rights.
    • Example: In November 2023, a deep fake video of actress Rashmika Mandanna was circulated widely on social media platforms. 

• Dataset Bias and Generalization: 

  • Generative models heavily rely on the training data they are exposed to. If the training data is biased or limited, the generated outputs would also be biased.
    • This can lead to discrimination and reinforce existing societal biases, if such an input data is provided to the AI system.

• Computational Resources and Complexity: 

  • Training and deploying generative models can be computationally intensive and require significant resources, including high-performance hardware and substantial training times.
    • Implementing and maintaining these models can be complex and resource-demanding.

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• Quality and Coherence: 

  • While generative models have made significant progress, they may still struggle with producing outputs that consistently exhibit high quality, coherence, and contextual relevance.

• Job Augmentation: 

• • Most jobs and industries are only partially exposed to automation and are more likely to be complemented rather than substituted by AI.
    • Generative AI systems similar to GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) are more likely to become productivity tools, supporting and speeding up the execution of some tasks within certain occupations.

• Fears Over Job Destruction: 

  • The surge in generative AI and its chatbot applications has sparked concerns about job destruction, akin to the concerns surrounding the introduction of the moving assembly line in the 1950s.
    • Technology can enhance job quality in the workplace by automating routine tasks, allowing more engaging work, but also limiting worker agency or increasing work intensity.

• Gendered Impact: 

  • Effects of automation are “highly gendered”, with more than double the share of women potentially affected by automation, due to their overrepresentation in clerical work, especially in high- and middle-income countries.
  • The recent increase in women’s labor market participation may be threatened by concentrated job losses in female-dominated occupations.

• Digital Divide: 

• • Generative AI technology is dependent on access and cost of broadband connectivity, as well as electricity. 
    • In 2022, one-third of the global population (around 2.7 billion people), still did not have access to the internet.

Way Forward to Using Generative AI Content

• All Stakeholder Approach: 

  • Consultation and negotiation is a need between various associated stakeholders to come out of this copyright issue.
    • Market-based Solutions: There is a need for a market-based solution, similar to the music industry’s response to peer-to-peer file sharing.
    • Regulated Policy: It should emphasize the importance of fine-tuning policies to promote creativity while addressing concerns about ownership in AI-generated content.
    • Clear Guidelines: Clear guidelines on AI use in copyright applications is desirable and required to ensure transparency.
    • Time for Judicial Recognition: It is a must for AI training as ‘research’ under fair dealing.

• Need to Expand Fair Use Approach: 

• • The use of copyrighted materials for training purposes should generally be considered fair use. 
    • Need for Specific exceptions for text/data mining: It should be ensured that if anyone is using copyrighted material for training, they do not seek copyright protection for the content generated by the AI concerned. 
    • Follow Four-factor Test: The four-factor test laid down by the Kerala High Court in the case of Civic Chandran vs C. Ammini Amma, 1996 can be useful in determining a considered fair use. These factors are the purpose of the use, the nature of copyrighted work, the amount and substantiality of the portion used and the impact of the use on the value of the copyrighted work.

• Regulation & Alignment with Existing Laws: 

  • There is a need to update intellectual property laws to align with the advancements in AI technology.
    • For oversight and compliance purposes, implement the data usage and governance policies for AI projects.
    • There is a need to mandate AI companies to appoint compliance officers responsible for copyright protection, audits, and assessments.

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• Maintain a Balance: 

• • The rising issue of copyright infringement and AI can have an impact on the development of AI technology and its potential applications. It is necessary to strike a balance between protecting copyright owners’ rights and fostering innovation in AI for the growth and advancement of the field.

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