Context

Protecting the rights of village landowners in Haryana, the Supreme Court allowed a review of a 2022 judgment which allowed gram panchayats to acquire shamlat deh land.

Supreme Court allows a review of its 2022 Judgment on Shamlat Deh Land Rights

• Background: The apex court in 2022 upheld a 1992 amendment to the Punjab Village Common Lands (Regulation) Act, 1961 (henceforth, the Punjab Act) which allows gram panchayats to manage and control shamlat deh land as “lands reserved for the common purposes of a village”.
• Challenge to 1992 Amendment: The 1992 amendment was recently challenged after observing that the 2022 decision disregarded an important and relevant Constitution Bench decision in the case of Bhagat Ram vs State of Punjab (1967).

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Background of the Dispute and Apex Court’s Judgments

• Bhagat Ram vs State of Punjab (1967): Clarifying the meaning of land acquisition under Article 31A: 
• • Validity of Land Consolidation Scheme: In 1967, a five-judge Bench decided the validity of a land consolidation scheme for the village of Dolike Sunderpur, which proposed to reserve lands “for common purposes” and divert the income of these lands to the panchayat.
    • The state of Punjab argued that reserving lands for the income of the panchayat does not qualify as land acquisition as the income would be used to benefit the village community.
    • It also argued that even if the land was being acquired, this was done before Article 31A came into force through the 17th constitutional amendment of 1964, and thus, the second provison would not apply.

• • Challenge to Scheme: Landowners challenged the scheme arguing that it violates the second provision of Article 31A.Ruling by SC: The SC applied the logic of  Ajit Singh v State of Punjab (1967) in Bhagat Ram Case and held that the beneficiary of the land consolidation scheme was the panchayat, and thus, also the state. 
    • The court held that the panchayat was effectively acquiring the land by reserving its income. 
    • The panchayat’s income can only be used for the village community’s benefit. 
    • Thus, accepting the state’s argument would “defeat the object” of the second provision of Article 31A.
    • Possession and control of the land was not transferred as the scheme had been stayed by the Punjab & Haryana High Court. 
    • Under Section 24 of the East Punjab Holdings (Consolidation and Prevention of Fragmentation) Act, 1948 (henceforth, the Consolidation Act), the scheme will only be “deemed to have come into force” after the possession is transferred.
• Jai Singh vs State of Haryana(2003): Does shamlat land belong to the landowners or the Panchayat:
  • Challenge to Punjab Act: The Punjab & Haryana High Court challenged the 1992 amendment to the Punjab Act which vested control of shamlat deh land in Haryana with the gram panchayat. 
  • Distinction Between Reserved Land and Proprietors’ Contributed Land: The court differentiated between land reserved for common purposes under the Consolidation Act, and land contributed by individual “proprietors”.
  • Exclusion of Control Over Contributed Lands: The control over lands contributed but not included in the consolidation scheme referred to as bachat or surplus land could not be vested with the panchayat as part of the consolidation scheme.
    • Relying on the SC’s decision in Bhagat Ram, the HC  held that the state and the gram panchayat could not acquire land that is not reserved under the consolidation scheme without providing compensation.
  • Challenge to Ruling: The state of Haryana challenged this decision at the Supreme Court which overruled the 2003 decision.
  • Ruling  by SC: It held that there was no need to pay compensation because the amendment to the Punjab Act was enacted after Article 31 had been removed by the Forty-Fourth Constitutional Amendment.
    • The management and control of the land were vested in the panchayat as soon as it was assigned, serving as the initial step before executing the consolidation scheme, and could be utilized at any time. 
    • The requirement in the second provision of Article 31A did not apply, as the panchayat was merely managing the land on behalf of the landholders, not acquiring it.
• Karnail Singh vs State of Haryana (2024): SC allows review of 2022 judgment:

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• Conflict Between 2022 Decision and Constitution Bench’s Ruling in Bhagat Ram: It held that the 2022 decision, which vested control of the land in the panchayat once the land was assigned, was “totally contrary” to the Constitution Bench’s decision in Bhagat Ram. 
  • The Bhagat Ram judgment stated that “management and control do not vest in the Panchayat until possession has changed,” and that landholders retain rights over their holdings until that time.
• Threshold for Review: It held that a smaller bench ignoring a Constitution Bench decision was a “material error manifest on the face of the order”, which is the threshold for permitting a review of a Supreme Court judgment. 
  • Consequently, the Bench recalled the 2022 decision and directed the challenge to the 2003 High Court decision to be heard once again.

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Context

A satellite-imagery based analysis by researchers at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark reveals that India may have lost close to 5.8 million full-grown trees in agricultural land from 2019 to 2022.

• The study, published this week in the journal Nature Sustainability.

Farmlands in India

• Farmland is the land used or suitable for farming. 
• Today, 56% of India is covered by farmland, the largest agricultural cover in the world, while 20% of the country is covered by forest vegetation.
  • The use of land for agriculture depends on soil type, irrigation facilities, and climate. 
  • In India, about 51.09% of the land is under cultivation, 21.81% under forest, and 3.92% under pasture.

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India’s Farmland Loses 5.8 Million Trees

• Analysis: The present analysis however focuses on Indian farmland and tracks individual trees, albeit only big ones, relying on maps from multiple ‘micro-satellites’, and machine learning analysis to estimate trends, beginning 2010.
• Key Findings- Vanishing Green: 
  • Researchers mapped 600 million farmland trees in 2010-11 
  • About 11% of those trees disappeared by 2018 
  • Between 2018 and 2022, another 5 million trees disappeared 
  • The analysis revealed that these trees were mature and quite old, and the high loss rate of mature trees in less than a decade is “unexpected”. 
  • Rise in paddy cultivation due to increased availability of borewell water led to this.
    • This was especially common in areas where new water supply systems were built. 
  • Little evidence to attribute this disappearance to climate change
    • Agroforestry plays a crucial role in climate adaptation and mitigation strategies, including sustaining livelihoods and protection of crops. 

• Affected Region: 
  • Telangana and Maharashtra: Disappearance of most trees were observed
  • Eastern Madhya Pradesh: The smaller hotspot 
  • Central India: Generally, this region faces the highest losses
• Challenges Faced: 
  • Overlook of Exact Tree Cover: About 56% of India is covered by farmland and 22% by forest. With the largest agricultural area in the world, changes in tree cover here, while critical, have been largely “overlooked”.
  • Specific to Particular Size: 
    • Researchers used satellite-imagery from RapidEye and PlanetScope – to estimate changes in tree number from 2010 to 2022. 
    • These satellites can “see” large trees, three to five meters apart, as individual trees. 
    • However, the FSI relies on data from the Sentinel satellite that has a coarser resolution of 10 metre – implying that they can tell apart blocks of trees but not individual ones.
• Inference Drawn:
  • No Overall Decline: This does not necessarily imply that India’s overall tree cover, or trees outside forest, is declining as the analysis was specific to only large trees above a certain size.
  • No Contradiction with India’s Forest Survey Report: The study, however, clarifies that the findings do not contradict official reports stating that India’s tree cover has increased in recent years because large plantations of trees were not considered for the study, especially due to their lack of contribution to biodiversity.
    • The Forest Survey of India (FSI) conducts regular surveys of tree cover – both inside and outside forests – but only publishes data on the changes in acreage and not individual trees. The latest FSI report says that India’s tree cover has increased in 2021 over 2019.

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Context

Global automakers might get some relief as the government is considering allowing existing investments in electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing to qualify for import concessions.

• Objective: To grow the electric vehicle industry by providing investment incentives and lowering import duties.
  • This initiative makes it attractive for global companies like Tesla to enter the market.

About EV Policy 2024

• Purpose: The EV policy 2024 aims to make EVs more affordable and accessible, to reduce pollution, decrease dependence on fossil fuels, and foster sustainable economic growth.
  • It also promotes manufacturing of EV. 
• Environmental Impact: By encouraging the use of EVs, the policy aims to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality in urban areas.
• Technological Advancement: The policy promotes the development and adoption of advanced technologies in the automotive sector, driving innovation and competitiveness.
• Economic Growth: Overall, EV policy 2024 stimulates economic growth by creating new business opportunities, boosting the automotive industry, and attracting foreign direct investment

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Key Highlights of the New EV Policy 2024

Under the EV policy 2024, global automakers can import fully built EVs at a reduced import duty of 15% for five years.

• • This applies to electric vehicles with a minimum cost of $35,000 (including cost, insurance, and freight).
• Existing Investments: Companies with existing investments in EV manufacturing may qualify for a lower import duty of 15% for a three-year period. 
  • This concession applies even to companies that invested in EV factories before the policy was announced.
  • CBUs (Completely Built Units):
    • CBUs priced above $40,000: Subject to a 100% import duty.
    • CBUs priced below $40,000: Subject to a 70% import duty.
  • CKD (Completely Knocked Down) Units:
    • The 15% concessional duty matches the rate for CKD (assembled) units.
• However, Companies must commit to setting up manufacturing facilities in India within three years.
• Minimum investment:  Rs 4,150 crore ($500 million) of investment required.
• Upper Limit: There is No upper limit on investment.

Localization & Incentives

• Local value addition: Companies need to achieve 25% local value addition by year three and 50% by year five.
• Capped Duty Foregone: The total amount of tax exemption on imported EVs has a limit. This limit is either the total investment made by the company or Rs 6,484 crore (whichever is lower).
• Import Quota: There’s a restriction on the number of EVs that can be imported yearly. 
• • The Maximum import of 40,000 EVs allowed (8,000 per year) for investments exceeding $800 million.

Benefits of New EV Policy 2024

The new EV policy 2024 offers several benefits to both global automakers and the Indian government.

For Global Automakers:

• Reduced Import Duty: Companies can import EVs at a significantly lower duty rate of 15% compared to the existing 100% or 70% duty structure.
• Phased Manufacturing: The policy allows a three-year window to set up domestic manufacturing facilities, providing flexibility for companies.
• Incentive for Early Investment: Even investments made before the policy announcement can be considered for benefits, encouraging early movers.
• Potential for Higher Sales Volumes: The concessional duty scheme and increasing EV demand in India could lead to higher sales for global automakers.

For the Indian Government

• Boost to Domestic Manufacturing: The EV policy 2024 incentivizes setting up EV manufacturing units in India, promoting job creation and technology transfer.
• Increased EV Adoption: Lower import duty makes EVs more affordable and helps in accelerating EV adoption which further reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
• Enhanced Localization: The policy mandates gradual increase in local value addition, which strengthens the domestic EV ecosystem and reduces reliance on imports.
• Revenue Generation: The policy encourages investments and creates a new revenue stream for the government through taxes and duties.

Challenges of New EV Policy 2024

• High Investment : The requirement of a minimum $500 million investment might be a hurdle for some smaller or newer EV manufacturers who might be interested in entering the Indian market.
• Tight Timeframe: Setting up a full-fledged manufacturing facility within 3 years can be a demanding task, especially for companies new to the Indian market. 
  • Delays due to bureaucratic hurdles or unforeseen circumstances could put the concessional duty benefit at risk.
• Focus on Premium Segment: The policy’s emphasis on EVs with a minimum cost of $35,000 might not incentivize the import and production of more affordable electric vehicles for the mass market. 
  • This could limit the overall impact on EV adoption in India.
• Compliance and Bank Guarantee: The bank guarantee for adhering to investment and domestic value addition targets could put financial pressure on companies, especially if unforeseen circumstances impact their ability to meet these targets.

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Context

The latest Bacterial Pathogens Priority List (BPPL) updated by the World Health Organization (WHO) highlights critical priority pathogens as significant global threats.

WHO updates Bacterial Pathogens Priority List

• The list features 15 families of antibiotic-resistant bacteria grouped into critical, high and medium categories for prioritization.
• WHO highlighted salmonella, shigella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus as high-burden pathogens in low- and middle-income countries, posing significant healthcare challenges.
• High-priority pathogens like antibiotic-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Enterococcus faecium pose unique public health challenges.

About Bacterial Pathogens Priority List

• About: The list serves as a new mechanism to prompt research and development that addresses pressing public health needs. 
  • Divided into three tiers—critical, high, and medium priority—the WHO list aims to guide resource allocation accordingly.

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Context

Internally displaced tribal families in the Godavari Valley persist in employing the ancestral ‘deda’ method to conserve seeds of pulses and food crops, inherited from their ancestors in Chhattisgarh.

Deda Method

• Storage of seeds: The seeds are stored within leaves and tightly packed to resemble boulders when viewed from a distance. 
  • These packaged seeds are then encased in Siali leaf (Bauhinia vahlii), locally referred to as ‘addakulu’, to create the deda.
• Three-Layer Seed Preservation: Each deda consists of three layers. Initially, wood ash is scattered within the Siali leaves. 
  • Then, lemon leaves are used to encase the ash, forming a protective layer. Finally, the seeds are stored inside this casing and sealed. 
  • Each deda is designed to accommodate a minimum of 5kg of seeds.
• Advantages of Deda Method: The Deda method ensures that seeds are shielded from pests and worms, allowing them to be viable for cultivation for up to five years. 
  • This technique is particularly effective for preserving pulses such as green gram, red gram, black gram, and beans.

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About Muria Tribes

• Geographical Location: Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
  •  They communicate in Koya, a Dravidian language.
• Settlements: Muria settlements are recognized as homes to Internally Displaced People (IDPs), numbering approximately 6,600 in Andhra Pradesh. 
  • They are commonly referred to as ‘Gutti Koyas‘ by the indigenous tribes.
  • Gutti Koyas were granted  Scheduled Tribes  Status in Chhattisgarh, But Not in Telangana.
• Muria Farming Practices : The Muria tribes engage in subsistence farming.
• Small-Scale Mixed Crop Farming: The Murias typically cultivate mixed crops on small-scale plots measuring below half an acre. 
  • Maize and pulses are their primary crops, with minimal reliance on paddy. Paddy cultivation employs the direct-sowing method.

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Context

China has inaugurated the High Energy Photon Source (HEPS), which will be the first fourth-generation synchrotron light source in Asia.

China Inaugurates Next-Generation Synchrotron 

• Existing Synchrotrons: Presently there are around 70 synchrotrons across the world that are either in operation or under construction.
• The fourth-generation club: Fourth-generation facilities rely on an array of magnets called a multi-bend achromat lattice to generate X-ray beams that are narrower and therefore brighter. Existing facilities include,
  • Sweden’s MAX IV Laboratory, 
  • Sirius in Campinas, Brazil,
  • The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility’s Extremely Brilliant Source in Grenoble, France.
  • The Advanced Photon Source in Lemont, Illinois.

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About High Energy Photon Source (HEPS)

• Location: It is situated 50 kilometers from Beijing in Huairou.
• Budget: It is a 4.8-billion-yuan (US$665-million) project.
• Objective: To  produce a light source that will  penetrate deep into samples to reveal their molecular and atomic structure in real time.
• Scope: Users can  select from the existing 14 beamlines for experiments in subjects including biomedicine, energy, advanced materials and condensed-matter physics. 
  • Also, HEPS is expected to accommodate up to 90 beamlines which will impact every scientific field, except maths going forward.
• Feature: 
  • Produce Hard X Rays: HEPS will accelerate electrons up to energies of 6 gigaelectron volts inside its storage ring, with a circumference of 1.36 kilometres, to produce high-energy, or hard X-rays to measure samples at nanometre scales. 
  • Enabling Nano measurements: Its time resolution will be 10,000 times better than that achieved by third-generation synchrotrons allowing researchers to make measurements in hundreds of nanoseconds instead of milliseconds
  • High Resolution Imaging:  HEPS’s electron beam will be the narrowest in the world, allowing it to create particularly intense X-rays enabling researchers to obtain more information from their samples with the same dose of radiation.
    • It will further drive scientists’ understanding of the properties of matter and help in the development of new materials.
  • Speedy experimentation: HEPS  will also allow researchers to rapidly execute experiments that would have  taken days to complete at older facilities.
    • Example: To determine the atomic structure of proteins, researchers need to purify and coax these molecules into orderly crystal structures that can be visualized with X-rays. Older synchrotrons require large samples that are difficult to produce, making it nearly impossible to study smaller protein crystals

What is synchrotron light?

• A synchrotron: It  is a type of circular particle accelerator which works by accelerating charged particles (electrons) through sequences of magnets until they reach almost the speed of light.
• Formation of Synchrotron Light: These fast-moving high energy electrons produce very bright light, by the ‘synchronised’ application of strong magnetic fields called synchrotron light.
  • This very intense light, predominantly in the X-ray region, is millions of times brighter than light produced from conventional sources and 10 billion times brighter than the sun. 
• Significance: The intense light which is  produced by the electrons is then  filtered and adjusted to travel into experimental workstations, where it is used to study minute matter such as atoms and molecules and reveals the innermost secrets of materials, from human tissue to plants to metals and more.
• Origin: 
• • The first synchrotron: It was built in 1946 and was designed to study collisions between high energy particles. Example: The Large Hadron Collider at CERN 
  • The First synchrotron Light experiment: In 1956, the first experiments were carried out using synchrotron light drawn from a particle collider at Cornell in the USA
  • The First Dedicated facility: In 1980 UK built the world’s first synchrotron dedicated to producing synchrotron light for experiments at Daresbury in Cheshire.
• Process: 
  • 1st step: The electrons are generated by the electron gun in the centre of the synchrotron and accelerated to 99.9997% of the speed of light by the linear accelerator, or linac.
  • 2nd step: The electrons are then transferred to the booster ring, where in approx. half a second, there is an increase in energy from 100 MeV to 3,000 MeV (or 3 GeV). They are then transferred to the outer storage ring.
  • Final step: The electrons are circulated around the storage ring by a series of magnets separated by straight sections. As the electrons are deflected through the magnetic field, electromagnetic radiation is produced.
  • Final Synchrotron light: At each bending magnet a beam of synchrotron light is produced and the  electromagnetic radiation produced by the synchrotron is emitted in a narrow cone in the forward direction, at a tangent to the electron’s orbit.
• Properties of Synchrotron light: 
  • High brightness: It  is extremely intense (hundreds of thousands of times more intense than that from conventional x-ray tubes) and highly collimated.
  • Wide energy spectrum: It can be generated across the range of the electromagnetic spectrum ie.  from infrared to visible light to x-rays.
  • Tunable: It  is possible to obtain an intense beam of any selected wavelength.
  • Highly polarised:  The synchrotron emits highly polarised radiation, which can be linear, circular or elliptical.
  • Very short pulses: Pulses are  emitted in typically less than a nano-second (a billionth of a second), enabling time-resolved studies.

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Context

Recently, International Cryosphere Climate Initiative (ICCI), a scientific advocacy organization, said that South American nation’s only remaining glacier, the ‘Humboldt, or La Corona’, in the Andes had become “too small to be classed as a glacier”.

Humboldt Glacier

• Venezuela’s Humboldt glacier, the country’s last glacier, reclassified as an ice field. 
  • Formerly the country had been home to 6 glaciers in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida mountain range, all located in the Andes at around 5,000 meters above sea level. 
    • The Five of the glaciers had disappeared by 2011Five glaciers already vanished by 2011
• Global trend: Glaciers shrinking and disappearing faster than anticipated. 
  • 2023 study projects two-thirds of the world’s glaciers could vanish by 2100 at current climate change rates.

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What are Glaciers?

Glaciers are essentially large and thick masses of ice that are formed on land due to the accumulation of snow over centuries.

• Conditions for Glacial Existence : According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS),
  • Form in areas with mean annual temperatures near freezing. 
  • Require significant winter snow accumulations. 
  • Summer temperatures must not completely melt winter snow. 
  • Glaciers flow slowly due to mass and gravity. 
  • No universal size definition, but typically need around 10 hectares of ice. 

Why are Glaciers Disappearing? 

• Due to the Impact of Global Warming: Due to Increased global temperatures since the Industrial Revolution.
• • Glaciers melt due to rising temperatures from greenhouse gas emissions. 
  • Human activities, like burning fossil fuels, release carbon dioxide and methane. 
    • These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, preventing it from escaping. 

• Venezuela’s Case : 
  • The Andes mountain range running through parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela has witnessed a temperature increase of a high rate of 0.10 degree Celsius in the past seven decades. 
    • Therefore it is the major reason why Venezuela has lost all of its glaciers. 
  • In the case of the Humboldt glacier, the melting was accelerated by El Niño, which developed in July 2023. 
    • El Nino refers to an abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and leads to warmer temperatures. 
    • In the Andean area of Venezuela, there have been some months with monthly anomalies of +3C/+4C above the 1991-2020 average, which is exceptional at those tropical latitudes.
• India Scenario : India is also at the risk of losing its glaciers. 
  • They are melting at unprecedented rates across the Hindu Kush Himalayan mountain ranges and could lose up to 80% of their volume this century if GHG emissions are not drastically reduced.

Impacts of Glacier Loss 

• Environmental Effect : 
  • They are a crucial source of freshwater, especially during hot, dry periods, for local communities, plants, and animals. 
    • Their disappearance would mean that one would have to be entirely dependent on spot rainfall for freshwater.
  • The cold water that runs off glaciers keeps downstream water temperatures cooler. 
  • This is crucial for many aquatic species in the region as they need cold water temperatures to survive. 
  • Glacier loss directly impacts such species, which are an essential part of the food web.
  • Melting glaciers can also contribute to the rise in sea level. 
• Economic, and Cultural Effect : Glaciers were a part of the region’s cultural identity, and for mountaineering and touristic activities.

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Context

Two Opposition leaders were instructed to modify their speeches delivered on Doordarshan and All India Radio (AIR) during their allotted broadcast time leading up to the ongoing Lok Sabha elections.

Rules for Political Parties to Use of State-funded Media During Polls

• Modifications to the Speech: References to the electoral bond scheme, “communal authoritarian regime” and “draconian laws”, had to be deleted and the term “bankruptcy” (of governance) had to be replaced with “failure”. 
• Compliance with ECI Regulations on State-Controlled Media Usage: It has been stated that the TV and radio networks were simply following rules set by the Election Commission of India (ECI) regarding the use of state-controlled media by recognised parties during elections. 
  • Prasar Bharati is India’s state-run public broadcaster and the parent organisation of Doordarshan and AIR.
• Background: The ECI allocated broadcast and telecast time to each of the six national parties — AAP, BSP, BJP, CPI(M), Congress, and Conrad Sangma’s National People’s Party — and 59 state parties for the 2024 elections. 
  • For national parties, out of the 10 hours prescribed, a total of 4.5 hours (45 minutes each) was allocated in both Doordarshan and AIR. 
  • The remaining 5.5 hours was further allocated on the basis of voteshare in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections. Similar formulae was followed while allocating time to state parties.

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Rules to use State-funded Media During Elections

• About: Recognised political parties have been allowed to freely use state-owned television and radio during polls since the 1998 Lok Sabha elections. 
• Allocation of time on state media: The ECI decides how much time each recognised national and state party will be allotted prior to the start of the election campaign.

• • National Parties: All put together, they get a minimum of 10 hours of telecasting time on Doordarshan’s national channel, and at least 15 hours on its regional channels. 
    • They also get 10 hours of broadcasting time on the national hook-up of AIR and 15 hours of broadcasting on regional AIR stations. 
  • State Parties: All put together, they get a minimum of 30 hours of telecasting time on the appropriate regional Doordarshan channel and AIR radio station.

Guidelines on Speeches’ Contents

• Pre-Approval of Party Speeches: Parties and their speakers are expected to submit transcripts of their speeches three to four days before recording. These have to be approved by the concerned authorities in the respective AIR and Doordarshan stations.
• The ECI’s guidelines forbid: 
  • Criticism of other countries
  • Attack on religions or communities
  • Anything obscene or defamatory
  • Incitement of violence
  • Anything amounting to contempt of court
  • Aspersions against the integrity of the President and judiciary
  • Anything affecting the unity, sovereignty and integrity of the nation
  • Any criticism by name of any person”.

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Context

NASA is about to launch its new polar mission (PREFIRE)  to study the Arctic and Antarctic, focusing on how these regions release heat into space.

• The mission is called PREFIRE (Polar Radiant Energy in the Far-InfraRed Experiment).
  • First satellite: The first of two small satellites will launch from New Zealand on May 22.
  • Second satellite: The second satellite (CubeSat) will launch two weeks after the first one.

About PREFIRE Mission

• Aim:  To study Earth’s polar regions.
• PREFIRE targets heat radiation from Earth’s poles to improve climate understanding.
  • It will play a major role in understanding a crucial aspect of climate science –  energy balance and its influence on climate change.

Objective of the About PREFIRE Mission

• The PREFIRE mission aims to shed light on previously unclear aspects of how Earth’s atmosphere and ice cover in the Arctic and Antarctic influence the amount of heat radiating out to space.
• Heat Emission Study:Understand why the Arctic has warmed more than 2.5 times faster than the rest of the world since the 1970s.

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• • Emitting of  far-infrared heat: Understand how well snow, sea ice, and other materials emit far-infrared heat, and how clouds affect this heat escaping to space.
• Predictive Insights: Improve predictions on future changes in heat exchange between Earth and space, and their effects on ice melting, atmospheric temperatures, and global weather.
• Cost Efficiency:  Provide critical climate change data using a low-cost platform compared to full-size satellites.

Earth’s Polar Regions

• The polar regions are also known as the frigid zones or polar zones.
  • It surrounds Earth’s North and South Poles.
  • These areas lie within the polar circles.
• High latitudes in the north feature floating sea ice covering much of the Arctic Ocean.
• In the south, the Antarctic ice sheet dominates the continent of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.
• Climatic condition on the poles
  • Less Intense Solar Radiation:
    • Polar regions receive less intense solar radiation compared to other parts of Earth.
  • Oblique Angle of Sun’s Energy:
    • The Sun’s energy arrives at an oblique angle.
    • It spreads over a larger area and becomes less concentrated.
  • Longer Distance Through Atmosphere:
    • Solar energy travels a longer distance through the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • During this travel, it can be absorbed, scattered, or reflected.
  • Seasonal Temperature Variation:
    • This phenomenon is similar to why winters are colder than other seasons, except in tropical regions.

Key Reasons to Study Earth’s Polar Regions

• Maintaining Planetary Balance:
  • Relation b/w Earth and climate: Earth’s temperature and climate rely on a delicate equilibrium between the energy it receives from the Sun and the heat it radiates back into space.
    • Polar regions play a critical role in this balance by influencing the amount of heat escaping Earth.
• Impact on Global Weather Patterns:
  • Weather system: Changes in the polar regions, like ice melt and altered cloud cover, significantly affect global weather systems.
    • Studying these regions helps us understand how they influence extreme weather events like storms, floods, and coastal erosion around the world.

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Context

A research testbed facility has been proposed to help meteorologists to deploy drones, mobile vans and high-end instruments to track the Nor’westers, or Kalbaisakhi, that affect the east and northeast regions of India every summer.

• Norwesters Impact: Though the Norwesters were less active this summer, there were occasional instances in April and early May. 
  • Strong winds and thunderstorms swept through the northern districts of West Bengal, Assam and Tripura, killing at least five people last month.

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Research Testbed Facility to Study Norwesters

• About: The proposed facility will cover a large area adjoining West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand. 
  • The control centre will be at Chandbali in the Bhadrak district of Odisha, about 130 km east of Bhubaneswar.
• Development: India Meteorological Department (IMD), Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, and National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), Delhi, will jointly develop and use this facility.
  • Minister of Earth Sciences, stated that the facility will be completed by 2026.
• Aim: It aims to study thunderstorms from the formation stage, growth, and propagation over eastern parts of the country. 
  • This will be done using meteorological instruments, drones, and other equipment that will aid in systematically tracking thunderstorms.
  • IMD, Pune, will collate all the data generated from the testbed facility for further research and analysis.
• Complementing Existing Mechanisms: It will house several high-end instruments complementing the existing observational mechanisms.
  • The eastern India region is currently covered by meteorological radars supported by a network of instruments to record upper air and surface observations.
• Significance: The large volumes of data generated from the facility are expected to help forecasters make timely thunderstorm predictions, issue nowcast warnings (an event in less than three hours), and ultimately save lives.
  • This can help make better predictions and generate early warning mechanisms to save lives and property.
• Improved Lead Times for Extreme Weather Events: The IMD currently issues nowcast warnings for extreme weather events with a lead time of three hours. 
  • With the establishment of the first dedicated testbed for thunderstorms, the goal is to provide warnings with improved lead times and to map the areas likely to be most affected. 
  • This will give the administration and local communities more time to prepare and respond effectively.

About Norwesters

• About: Originating over east and northeast India, south Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, the norwesters are extremely severe thunderstorms accompanied by squally winds. 
  • These storms usually travel from northwest to southeast direction locally known as“Kalbaisakhi” and  “Barodoli Cheerha” in Assam. 
  • A squall is a sudden, sharp increase in wind speed lasting minutes, as opposed to a wind gust, which lasts for only seconds. 
• Impact:  It brings destruction in terms of lightning, thunderstorms, hailstorms and rainfall. It is beneficial for pre-Kharif crops such as paddy, jute, and many other fruits and vegetables. 
• Need for In-depth Study of Norwesters’ Genesis and Processes: Norwesters are severe thunderstorms that need further investigation with respect to its genesis at the micro level and other processes involved. 

Mechanism:

• Heating Induced Convection:  In the early summer months (March and April), the daytime landmass heating over these regions triggers convection over some areas of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and sub-Himalayan West Bengal.
• Interaction with Warm, Moist Air Masses Over the Bay of Bengal: As these convective clouds move towards West Bengal and Bangladesh, the norwesters mix with the warm, moist air mass persistent over the Bay of Bengal, causing significant wind discontinuity. 
• Ideal Conditions for Thunderstorm Development: The local hills, thick forest cover, and the sea breeze make it ideal for developing thunderstorm cloud cells. 
• These thunderstorm events usually prevail between two to four hours during late afternoon hours.

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Context

Recently, the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) issued a red alert for heatwaves in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and most parts of Western Rajasthan.

IMD Issues Severe Heatwave Red Alert for Punjab Haryana and Chandigarh

• The Chandigarh administration is reportedly considering shutting down schools by noon, given these conditions.
• A US-based group of climate scientists called ‘Climate Central’ said human-caused climate change has made this intense heat much more likely. 

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About Heatwave Red Alert 

• Refers: A red alert refers to an extreme heat warning. 
• Time Persistence: It means that a severe heatwave has persisted for more than two days or the total number of heat/severe heatwave days has been more than six days.
• Concerns: 
  • According to IMD, there is a very high likelihood of developing heat illness and heat stroke in all ages. 
  • Extreme care needs to be exercised for vulnerable people, such as the elderly, infants and those with chronic diseases. 
  • According to the World Health Organization, more than 1,66,000 people died as a result of heatwaves between 1998 and 2017.

About Heatwave

• Refers: For every region, a heatwave is determined based on the degree of difference from its usual temperatures. 
  • • Heat wave is considered if the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions. 
    • For coastal areas, it is when the maximum temperature departure is 37°C or more than normal.
  • Such temperatures must be recorded at least in two stations in a meteorological sub-division for at least two consecutive days. The heatwave is declared on the second day.
• Affected Regions of India: Heatwaves cover Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. 
  • Sometimes they occur in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, too. 
  • Maximum temperatures above 45°C are observed mainly in Rajasthan and the Vidarbha region in May.

Severe Heatwave

If the prevalent temperature is 4.5°C to 6.4°C more than normal, it is classified as a heatwave. A rise of more than 6.4°C is considered a severe heatwave. May is the peak month for heatwaves in India.

About Heatwave Alert

• Classification: 
  • On the Qualitative Basis: According to the IMD’s website, Qualitatively, heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to the human body when exposed. 
  • On the Quantitative Basis: Quantitatively, it is defined based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual temperature or its departure from normal.

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Context

India has proposed a Digital Competition Law, aimed at preventing tech giants like Google, Facebook, and Amazon from favoring their own services or using data from one business to benefit another within the same company.

Draft Digital Competition Bill 2024

Committee Recommendations: The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) had formed a Committee on Digital Competition Law, which in its report recommended a new Digital Competition Act, to introduce proactive legislation aimed specifically at large digital companies, to complement the Competition Act.

About Digital Competition Bill 2024

• Inspired by the EU: The proposal is similar to the EU’s Digital Markets Act (DMA), which went into complete effect earlier this year, and requires large tech firms like Alphabet, Amazon and Apple to open their services, and not favor their own at the expense of rivals.
• Objective of the Bill: The provisions of the bill aims to set presumptive norms to curb anti-competitive practices before they actually take place, and promises to impose heavy penalties

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Need for Digital Competition Bill 2024

• Inadequacy of Current Ex-Post Antitrust Framework: The current ex-post antitrust framework, under the Competition Act, 2002, reacts to violations after they occur, often too late to protect competition effectively. The DCB proposes an ex-ante approach, preventing antitrust violations before they disrupt the market.
• Addressing Monopolistic Actions: Recent fines against big-tech companies like Google for anti-competitive behaviors underscore the need for stringent rules. The DCB aims to establish clear regulations to prevent such dominant practices upfront.
• Anti Competitive Practice by Big-tech companies: Big-tech companies have shown a history of engaging in anti-competitive practices. In 2023, Google was fined Rs 1.337 crore by the CCI for its anti-competitive conduct in the Android ecosystem.
• Facilitating New Entrants and Innovation: The digital market’s structure disproportionately benefits big tech, deterring new competitors. The DCB seeks to reduce these barriers, encouraging innovation and diversity in the marketplace.
• Ensuring Fair Competition: Big tech’s dominance often overshadows smaller entities, making competition unfair. The DCB focuses on creating equitable conditions that allow smaller companies to compete effectively.
• Promoting Systematic Growth and Fairness: The bill aims to guide the digital ecosystem’s growth towards fairness and competitive equity, tackling issues like arbitrary pricing and anti-competitive practices.

Key Proposals of the Draft Digital Competition Bill 2024

• Predictive Regulation: The bill proposes  a forward-looking, preventive, and presumptive law (an ex ante framework), which foresees the potential harms that can arise out of antitrust issues and prescribes pre-determined no-go areas. 
  • Example: Setting clear rules to avoid conflicts in advance, similar to how GDPR regulates data privacy.
  • Currently India follows an ex post antitrust framework under the Competition Act, 2002, which involves delays and rules out smaller competitors.
• Enlisting of Core Digital Services: The bill lists down “core digital services”under Schedule I of the bill. It consists of 
  • online search engines,
  • video-sharing platform services,
  • online social networking services,
  • interpersonal communications services,
  • operating systems, web browsers, cloud services, advertising services, and
  • online intermediation services (includes web-hosting, service providers, payment sites, etc.)
• Provision of Significant Entities: The Bill proposes to designate certain enterprises as Systemically Significant Digital Enterprises (SSDEs). 
  • SSDEs are companies that provide “core digital services” in India and are determined by various quantitative and qualitative parameters such as turnover, user base, market influence etc.

• • Entities that don’t fall under these parameters can still be designated as SSDEs if the CCI believes that they have a significant presence in any given core digital service.
• Responsibilities of SSDEs: Entities which are designated as SSDEs, have been prohibited from engaging in practices such as self-preferencing, anti-steering, and restricting third party applications. 
  • Example: Google cannot favor its own services like Google Maps over competitors in search results.
  • If they violate these requirements, they can be fined up to 10% of their global turnover.
• Designation of Associate Digital Enterprises (ADE): Recognizing the impact of data shared within a tech group in benefitting other group companies, the Bill proposes to designate associate digital enterprises (ADEs).
  • If an entity of a group is determined to be an associate entity, they would have the same obligations as SSDEs, depending on the level of their involvement with the core digital service offered by the main company.

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Regulations Governing Tech Companies in Other Countries

Criticism of the Draft Digital Competition Bill 2024

• Compliance Burden: Big tech companies argue that the ex-ante framework imposes heavy compliance costs, shifting their focus from innovation to regulatory adherence.
  • Example: The EU’s Digital Markets Act (DMA) has increased the time to find things via Google search by 4,000%, leading to delays and inefficiencies.
• Impact on Innovation: Tech giants believe strengthening the current competition law is preferable to the new framework, which they say could stifle innovation.
• • Example: Apple would need to allow third-party app stores on iPhones, which it opposes, arguing it could hinder its platform’s security and user experience.
• Broad Definitions: Companies are concerned about the broad and discretionary definitions of significant platforms, causing uncertainty.
  • Example: Unlike the EU’s DMA, which clearly identifies ‘gatekeeper’ entities, India’s draft leaves this determination to the CCI, causing uncertainty.
• Potential Arbitrary Decisions: The discretion given to the CCI could lead to arbitrary decision-making, impacting start-ups and small businesses.
• Impact on Smaller Businesses: Restricting data sharing and making platform changes could negatively affect smaller businesses that rely on these platforms to reach large audiences.
  • Example: Reducing data sharing could limit small businesses’ ability to target customers effectively on major digital platforms.
• Industry Concern: The Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) has expressed apprehensions about the draft Digital Competition Bill 2024. It suggested that this bill could have adverse effects on Indian startups and other digital enterprises.
  • They argued that the proposed regulations stifle venture investments in technology startups.

Conclusion

The Draft Digital Competition Bill 2024 is a significant step towards fair competition and preventing monopolies in India’s digital markets. Despite concerns about compliance burdens and innovation impacts, its aim to level the playing field for new entrants and smaller businesses is crucial. Balanced implementation and stakeholder engagement will be key to promoting sustainable digital growth.

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Context

Presidential elections are scheduled in Taiwan on 13th January in which Kinmen residents are preparing to vote.

Kinmen Island Map

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About Kinmen Island

Kinmen Island, alternatively known as Quemoy, is a group of islands governed by Taiwan.

• Location: 
  • In reference to China: At the southeastern coast of the People’s Republic of China, from which they are separated by Xiamen Bay. 
    • To the east of Xiamen.
  • In reference to Taiwan: On the west from the closest shoreline of the island of Taiwan across the Taiwan Strait.

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