Context

Last week, a team of climate scientists called World Weather Attribution (WWA) reported that heat waves across Asia, from the west to the southeast, had been rendered nearly 45-times more likely by climate change.

• Just a couple of decades ago, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) argued that individual weather events could not be attributed to climate change, researchers now have been able to attribute some individual extreme events to climate change.

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About Extreme Weather Events

• Definition: When the weather conditions show significant differences than the usual weather, this is termed as extreme weather or severe weather. 
• Time Duration: The extreme weather conditions may last for a while or sometimes it may take just one or two days to become normal. 
• Impact: According to the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), extreme weather, climate and water-related events caused 11,778 reported disasters globally, leading to more than two million deaths and USD 4.3 trillion in economic losses between 1970 and 2021.
  • Over 90 per cent of the reported deaths worldwide occurred in developing countries.
  • In India, 573 disasters occurred between 1970 and 2021 that claimed 1,38,377 lives.
• Concerns: 
  • Exercise to Pick Extreme Events to Attribute: Scientists used multiple approaches in their attribution exercise to answer the same question, and have added that the differences between them are immaterial. 
  • Difficult to Attribute: According to Climate Change: Evidence and Causes, a jointly produced publication of The US National Academy of Sciences and The Royal Society, it is quite difficult to attribute any particular extreme weather event to climate change. 
    • This is because there are multiple factors, like patterns of natural climate variability, such as El Niño and La Niña, that contribute to such events.
    • The actual impacts of extreme events depend not only on the hazard or the extreme event but also on the vulnerability and the exposure of the population affected. 

Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Weather Events

• Extreme Temperature: The average global temperature on Earth has increased by at least 1.1 degree Celsius since 1850, primarily due to human activities that have released unprecedented levels of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
  • The rise in the temperatures has resulted in more frequent and more intense extreme weather events across the world. These events include heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires.
• Heat Waves: Climate models show that heat waves might become about 12 times more frequent by 2040s due to climate change.
• Loss & Damage: While no formal cost-benefit analysis of an attribution exercise has been reported, many experts have argued that attributions are critical for the ‘loss and damage’ process.

Way Forward

• Adequate Financing: There is a need to take stock of the international finance aspects of adaptation, mitigation, and L&D. 
• Responsibility: Governments should consider an agreement on historical responsibilities to fund developing countries and close adaptation gaps, build adaptation capacity, and finance mitigation for the global good.
• Analysis: The real world is severely resource-constrained and needs a cost-benefit analysis based on a clear role for attribution in the overall climate action landscape.

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Context

Recently, Norway, Ireland and Spain announced that they will formally recognise the state of Palestine.

Norway, Ireland, and Spain Recognize Palestine; Steps Towards Peace in West Asia

• The European countries’ announcements come weeks after 143 of 193 countries in the United Nations General Assembly voted for full membership to the U.N. for the State of Palestine. 
• Norway: It has been involved in peace talks between Israel and Palestine for decades, including by hosting the beginning of the Oslo process, which culminated in the Oslo Peace Accords in the early-mid 1990s, agreements that were meant to usher in a resolution to the conflict and a two state solution.
• Ireland: It believed that recognizing a Palestinian state would lead to peace and reconciliation in West Asia. 
• Spain: It announced that its recognition of Palestine was not against the Israelis, but a step in favor of “peace, justice and moral consistency.

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Implications of Recognition

• Unclear to Say: While dozens of countries have recognized Palestine, none of the major Western powers has done so, and it is unclear how much of a difference the move by the three countries might make.
• International Legitimacy: This recognition would mark a significant accomplishment for the Palestinians, who believe it confers international legitimacy on their struggle. 
• Negligible Short Term Change: Little would likely change on the ground in the short term. Peace talks are stalled, and Israel’s hardline government has dug its heels in against Palestinian statehood.

Recognition to Palestine as a State

• Some 140 countries have already recognized Palestine, more than two-thirds of the United Nations’ membership.
• Some major powers have indicated their stance may be evolving amid the outcry over the consequences of Israel’s offensive in Gaza, which has killed more than 35,000 Palestinians according to Gaza’s Health Ministry. 

A Timeline Israel Palestine Conflict

• 1949: Israel signs truces with Arab countries, and the Gaza Strip was under Egypt’s control.
• 1956: Israel invades the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip in response to Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal.
• 1957: Israel withdrew from Egyptian land, except from the Gaza Strip and the area of the Gulf of Aqaba, arguing that the Gaza Strip never belonged to Egypt.
• 1967: During the Six-Day War, Israel gains control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula.
• 1987: Palestine initiated the first intifada against Israel.
• 1993: Arafat signs the Oslo Accords with Israel, committing to negotiating a two-state solution; Hamas launches suicide bombings in Israel.
• 2021: Israeli police raid Al-Aqsa Mosque, leading to an 11-day war between Israel and Hamas; casualties on both sides.
• 2023: Recent attacks by Hamas on Israel

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Context

Recently the BIMSTEC acquired ‘legal personality’ after the first charter came into force which allows the organization to add new members and observers.

Background of BIMSTEC Charter

• Adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter: After the pandemic, the leaders of BIMSTEC nations convened virtually on March 30, 2022, chaired by Sri Lanka, and endorsed the charter. 
  • The adoption of the BIMSTEC charter took place during its 5th Summit in March 2022. 
  • Thailand assumed the chairmanship of BIMSTEC following the 5th leaders’ summit.
• BIMSTEC Charter Ratification: Nepal’s parliament addressed the BIMSTEC charter in April 2024, ratifying it and facilitating its entry into force. 
  • Consequently, the BIMSTEC charter is reported to have become effective on May 20, 2024.

Significance of BIMSTEC as legal personality

• BIMSTEC Legal Recognition: With the charter now in effect, BIMSTEC has gained a ‘legal personality’, meaning it possesses rights and responsibilities under the law. 
  • This enables it to engage in structured diplomatic discussions with other groups and nations. 
  • The activation of the charter establishes a legal and institutional framework for fostering substantial cooperation and enhanced integration within the Bay of Bengal region.

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Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation

• About: BIMSTEC, an economic bloc established in June 1997 by the Bangkok Declaration, initially comprised four member states: Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. 
  • Nepal joined as an observer state in 1998 and later became a full-time member alongside Bhutan in February 2004.
• Member Countries: Member countries of BIMSTEC include Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, and Bhutan. 
• Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• Goal: To address the impacts of globalization by fostering regional growth through collaborative efforts, leveraging regional resources, and geographical advantages.
• Significance of BIMSTEC: Approximately 22% of the global population resides in the seven countries surrounding the Bay of Bengal, boasting a collective GDP nearing $2.7 trillion. 
  • From 2012 to 2016, all seven nations maintained average annual growth rates ranging between 3.4% and 7.5%. Moreover, a quarter of the world’s traded goods traverse the bay annually.

Areas of Collaboration

• BIMSTEC Priority Areas: BIMSTEC operates as a sector-focused cooperative organization, initially encompassing six sectors: Trade, Technology, Energy, Transport, Tourism, and Fisheries.
  • Presently, BIMSTEC has expanded to 14 priority areas of cooperation, with Climate Change added as the 14th priority area in 2008.
  • Within these priority areas, member countries select which ones they are willing to lead. For instance, India leads in Transport & Communication, Tourism, Environment & Disaster Management, as well as Counter-Terrorism & Transnational Crime.

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Context

Recently, the Election Commission (EC) of India told the Supreme Court that it cannot upload Form 17C, which is the record of votes polled at a polling station, because there is no legal mandate to give it to anyone other than candidates and their agents.

• On May 17, the Supreme Court had asked the EC to submit a response to a petition by ADR, which asked for scanned copies of Form 17C to be uploaded on the EC website as soon as polling concludes.

About the Issue

• Background: Nonprofits Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) and Common Cause filed an interlocutory application in a 2019 writ petition alleging discrepancies in the voter turnout data regarding the 2019 General Elections.
• Response by the Election Commission of India: 
  • Underlined the Difference: The EC underlined the difference between the statutory disclosure of the number of votes recorded in each polling station in the form of Form 17C and its non-statutory, voluntary disclosure of voter turnout on polling day in the form of press releases and its Voter Turnout app.
    • Voter Turnout app is a mobile app, launched by ECI for the voters across the country to see the real time availability of voter turnout during the election season in the country.
  • No Legal Mandate: It is submitted that there is no legal mandate to provide the Form 17C to any person other than the candidate or his agent.

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About Form 17 C

• Refers: It is an account of all the votes recorded. 
  • As per the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, the ECI has to maintain two forms that have data on the number of electors and the votes polled — Forms 17A and 17C. 
  • Form 17A is used to record the details of every voter who comes into a polling booth and casts his or her vote. 
• Rules Followed: 
  • Prepared by: Under Rules 49S and 56C of the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, the presiding officer prepares an account of votes recorded in Part-I of Form 17C and makes it available to every polling agent present at the close of the poll.
  • To Furnish Information: Under Rule 49S(2), a presiding officer is mandated to furnish a copy of the entries made in Form 17C to the polling agents of the candidates at the close of polling.
• Significance: 
  • Contains Significant Information: Part I of Form 17C contains crucial information:
    • The identification numbers of the EVMs used in the polling station
    • The total number of electors assigned to the polling station
    • The total number of voters as entered in the register for voters (Form 17A)
    • The number of voters who decided not to record their votes after signing the register
    • The number of voters who were not allowed to vote
    • The total number of test votes and votes recorded per EVM 
  • Carry Counting Results: Part II of Form 17C contains the results of the counting carried out on the stipulated day.
  • Verification of the Results: The data in Form 17C is used by candidates to verify the results on counting day by matching it with the EVM count. 
    • Subsequently, an election petition can also be moved in the concerned High Court in case of any discrepancies.
  • Maintenance of Transparency: Copies of Form 17 C are shared with polling agents present immediately, as the strongest measure of transparency. So, candidates are aware and in possession of exact voter turnout data in absolute numbers even before it is known to the ECI.

About Voter Turnout

• Refers: It is a module of the Enabling Communications on Real-time Environment (ENCORE) that runs on the poll day. 
  • ENCORE has been developed by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to manage candidates and elections more efficiently.
• Data Entry: All the data entries need to be filled without fail in a designated time slot by the Returning Officer (RO) /Assistant Returning Officers (AROs) in the ENCORE Portal. 
  • The ROs/AROs enter the cumulative percentage of voter turnout for their respective assembly. 
• Turnout Report: After the end of the Poll, System allows entry of detailed turnout reports – Constituency wise and Polling Station wise, which include male, female, and third gender numbers against the total number of electors.
• Available Features in the Voter Turnout Module:
  • Slot-wise percentage entry of turnout
  • Publish of turnout on the end of slot
  • Polling station-wise data entry for “End of Poll” percentage
  • Multi-level verification of final poll percentage
• Significance: 
  • Monitoring: This voter turnout data can be monitored by the citizens and media houses via Voter Turnout app. 
    • These percentages get aggregated in the system to find the district and state wise poll percentage.
  • Simplification of the Process: This mechanism simplifies the data entry of two-hourly voter turnout and helps in the timely dissemination of the information on a real-time basis. 
    • To ensure timely entries for each Constituency, there is a facility to monitor and identify the assembly that has missed the data entry.

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Context

Pig Butchering Scams, a type of online financial fraud, are on the rise worldwide, including in India.

Pig Butchering Scam

• Origins: The term “pig butchering” refers to the scammers’ strategy of “fattening up” their victims by gradually building trust before “slaughtering” them and stealing their money.
  • Pig butchering is a worldwide investment scam that originated in China and gained significant prominence during the pandemic.
• Alternative Name: The “sha zhu pan” scam.
• Fraud Type: An online investment scam where fraudsters create fake identities to deceive victims into investing in fraudulent schemes.

Methods involved In Pig Butchering Scam

• Contact Tactics: The scam starts with the “host” reaching out to potential victims through social media, dating apps, or deceptive messages.
• Establishing Fake Friendship: Once a target, referred to as the “pig,” is identified, the host establishes a fake friendship and encourages them to venture into cryptocurrency trading.
• Deceptive Trading App: The host uses a fake trading app to trick the victim into thinking they are earning profits from fabricated trades.
• Building Trust and Increasing Investments: As the victim’s trust deepens, the host convinces them to invest more money, a tactic known as “fattening the pig.”
• Challenges in Fund Retrieval: When victims attempt to withdraw their funds, the fraudulent platform either offers excuses or imposes hefty fees, ultimately exposing the scam. 
  • Due to the characteristics of blockchain transactions, retrieving lost funds is exceedingly difficult.

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Common victims of Pig Butchering scams

• People facing loneliness or isolation
• Individuals with limited financial literacy or investment experience
• Those undergoing substantial life changes or emotional upheaval
• Middle-aged and older individuals with substantial savings or retirement funds
• Naturally trusting or empathetic individuals
• Users frequenting platforms such as Telegram and Instagram
• Homemakers and retired individuals seeking fast money opportunities

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Context

Recently, a new four-way security arrangement to launch SQUAD  in the Indo-Pacific was institutionalized.

• The Defense Ministers of the USA met his counterparts from  Australia, Philippines and Japan  to launch the ‘Squad’ to outline their collective vision for peace, stability, and deterrence in the region.

The Squad

• It  is a quadrilateral  grouping comprising the 4 Indo Pacific Nations of  USA, Australia, Philippines and Japan 
• Security ‘mini-lateral’ groupings in the Indo-Pacific: The SQUAD has become the recent addition to the series of such mini-lateral security groups in the Indo Pacific region.
  • Example: Quad, Aukus, the US-Philippines-Japan trilateral and the US-Japan-South Korea trilateral.

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• Prime Objective: The objective is to deepen the level of integration amongst themselves and counter the hegemonic tendencies of China in militarizing the South China Sea threatening the rules-based order of the Indo-Pacific.
• Origin: The idea of an informal grouping of the 4 nations in an effort to enhance their strategic collaboration in the South China Sea has been on the table since 2023.
  • 2023: The  Defense chiefs of all four countries met for the first time on the sidelines of the Shangri La security dialogue in Singapore. 
• Collaboration:
  • April 2024: The USA, Japan, the Philippines and Australia conducted their first-ever multilateral maritime exercise in the Philippines’ exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
  • Each of these countries shares a bilateral treaty alliance with the USA but the Philippines, Japan and Australia are not treaty allies at present.
  • Existing collaboration: The Philippines is currently negotiating a reciprocal access agreement (RAA) with Japan to enhance troop deployments between both countries complementing the existing Visiting Forces of Agreement (VFA) with the US and the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with Australia.
• Significance: 
  • Capacity Building: The 4 nations will bring together a wide range of resources and capabilities with Australia and Japan providing  substantial naval and defense resources and Philippines’ with its marine capabilities.
  • Role of the Philippines: Philippines will play the central  role with respect to its strategic location  in Southeast Asia, and  has positioned itself as the Squad’s fulcrum.
    • The Philippines has been propelled into a central role in the broader  US strategy of “integrated deterrence” in the region.
  • Indo Pacific Security: The alliance plans to enhance military interoperability, conduct additional joint patrols and drills, and improve intelligence and maritime security cooperation in the region.
  • Encourage Strategic Convergence: The Squad, AUKUS, and QUAD are important components of a new security architecture  fostering  cooperation on a variety of security and defense challenges, by bringing together states with complementary capabilities and objectives.
    • Example: The External Affairs Minister (EAM) of India visited the Philippines in the background of heightened tensions between the Philippines and Chinese naval forces.
  • Connect with Regional Players: These informal coalitions aim to connect with a wider range of regional players e.g. ASEAN, improving  communication and convergence  supplementing current international frameworks, rather than being exclusive. 

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Context

Recently Indian Army Chief Gen Manoj Pande in the conference titled ‘Historical Patterns in Indian Strategic Culture‘,revealed that The Indian Army, under its initiative Project Udbhav, is Exploring war tactics from vedas, puranas, and Mahabharata.

Indian Army Chief Discusses Project Udbhav

• Conference was based on the Project Udbhav to discuss the utilization of  India’s rich military heritage like 
  • The epic battles of the Mahabharata and 
  • the strategic brilliance of past Indian dynasties etc to boost military capabilities of the Indian Army.
• The conference  brings to conclusion the seven month long research that will facilitate in creating a knowledge pool for scholars and defense personnel for further studies.

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About Project Udbhav 

• Project Udbhav ( which translates to ‘origin’ or ‘genesis’), is  a collaboration between the Indian Army and the United Service Institution of India (USI).
• It acknowledges the vintage scriptures and writings of our Nation & to revisit the roots of India’s ancient military thoughts that can benefit modern military strategies. 
• It was launched during the inauguration of the Indian Military Heritage Festival.

Objective of the Project 

• To synthesize ancient wisdom with contemporary military practices, 
• Forging a unique and holistic approach to address modern security challenges. 
• To integrate age-old wisdom with contemporary military pedagogy. 
• To facilitate in-depth understanding of our knowledge systems and philosophies.

Ancient & Historical Military Practices underlined under Project UDBHAV 

• Chanakya’s Arthashastra : It underscores the importance of strategic partnerships, alliances and diplomacy, aligning with modern military practices such as international cooperation and soft power projection. 
  • Chanakya’s teachings on statecraft and warfare are studied by various institutions the world over. 
• Wisdom of Thirukkural : The classical Tamil text authored by Thiruvalluvar, the Tamil philosopher, advocates ethical conduct in all endeavors, including warfare. 
  • This aligns with modern military codes of ethics ‘of just war’ and principles of Geneva Convention.
• A study of prominent military campaigns and leaders : 
  • The empires of Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka and Cholas flourished and expanded in influence, during their times. 
  • Ahom Kingdom too, which successfully ruled for 600 years, repeatedly defeating the Mughals. 
    • The Naval Battle of Saraighat in 1671, led by Lachit Borphukan, stands as a stellar example of the use of clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, employ psychological warfare, focus on military intelligence and exploiting the strategic weakness of the Mughals. 
  • Chhatrapati Shivaji and Maharaja Ranjit Singh who defeated numerically superior Mughal and Afghan invaders.
    • Shivaji’s use of guerrilla tactics & foresightedness in construction of a series of Naval Forts along the Western seaboard to ward off external threats. 

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Context

A retiring Calcutta High Court judge revealed that he has always been a member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).

What is Political Affiliation?

• Political affiliation refers to an individual’s identification or association with a particular political party or ideology.
• Membership: It often involves being a member of a political party.
• Support: Includes supporting a party’s candidates, policies, and platform.

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• Activities: Participating in activities such as voting in primaries, attending party meetings, and campaigning.
• Beliefs: Holding beliefs and values that align with a specific political party.
• Donations: Financial contributions to a political party or its candidates.

Timeline for changes in Political Ideology in Judicial Appointments in India

• Pre-1970s: Political ideology was not a major factor in judicial appointments.

• Shift in Appointment Practices After 1970: This practice shifted when Indira Gandhi’s government faced Supreme Court setbacks in key cases  (Golak Nath, bank nationalization, privy purses). .
  • This setback forced Ministers to start arguing for considering ideology in Supreme Court appointments.
    • Impact on Justice M N Chandurkar: Despite qualifications, his elevation to Supreme Court was blocked.
      • Reasons for Disapproval: Attendance of  RSS leader’s funeral and  positive remarks about the leader.

• The Collegium System:

  • Since the 1990s, judicial appointments have been made through the Collegium system where judges appoint judges.
    • This system presumes judicial neutrality and expects judges to avoid overt 
    • The Collegium system handles the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Court.
    • It is not based on the Constitution but has developed through Supreme Court judgments.
    • Structure and Function
      • Supreme Court: The Chief Justice of India  CJI + 4 senior-most Supreme Court  judges.
        • They recommend judicial appointments and transfers.
      • The High Court Collegium: This collegium comprises Chief Justice of the high court + 2 senior-most judges.
      • Government’s Role: Can raise objections/ask for clarifications, but ultimately bound by collegium’s recommendations if reaffirmed.

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Context

As per the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), nearly half of financial frauds targeting Indians are originating from the three south-east Asian countries of Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos.

Southeast Asian Financial Crimes Targeting India

• Chinese Connection: Many web applications used to commit the frauds are written in Chinese language, hence showing the Chinese connection.
• Formation of a Committee: Recently, a high-level inter-ministerial committee headed by the Special Secretary (Internal Security) has been constituted aimed at mitigating cybercrime originating from south-east Asia targeting India.
• Inclusion under Organised Crime: The newly enacted Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) would come into effect from July 1 and would put such crimes in the “organized crime” category.

Rising Financial Crimes and Southeast Asian Involvement

• Concerning Statistics: In the first four months of the year, Indians had lost over ₹1,776 crore in 89,054 cases of financial crimes such as digital arrest, stock market scam, investment scam and romance or dating scam and there had been an increase in organized crime from south-east Asia.
• Hotspots: Out of the total complaints on the national cyber crime portal, 85% complaints pertain to financial crimes, out of which 48% originate from south-east Asia. 
  • The financial crime hotspots in Jharkhand, Haryana, Rajasthan and West Bengal were still active and are expanding. 

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Context

The European Union (EU) activated its rapid satellite mapping service to help search efforts, in the wake of Iran President’s death.

About Copernicus Emergency Management Service

• It is part of the EU’s space programme and aims to monitor the Earth and its environment by collecting data from a set of satellites known as the Sentinels. 
• Launched: Launched in 1998 and has been in operation since 2012.
  • It was earlier called Global Monitoring for Environmental Security (GMES). 
• Implementation agencies: Currently, it is implemented by the European Commission (EC) with support from the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Environment Agency (EEA).
• Data Collection: 
  • It gets data from contributing missions (existing commercial and public satellites) and in situ or non-space sources such as ground stations.
• Mandate: To provide geo-spatial information derived from satellite remote sensing and in situ data sources to help manage natural disasters, man-made emergencies, and humanitarian crises.
• Components: There are two components of the service- the mapping component and the early warning component. 
  • The Mapping Component: It provides maps and analysis based on satellite imagery.

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• • The Early Warning Component: It issues alerts about floods, droughts, and forest fires, and gives near-real time assessment of forest fire impacts.
• Usage: The data are processed and analyzed to generate value-added information, which can be used for a wide range of applications in many areas. 
  • These include land management, the marine environment, the atmosphere, emergency response, security, and climate change. 
  • Users get the information on a “full, open, and free-of-charge” basis.

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Context

The Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) to the Government of India convened the first meeting to discuss biomass cultivation on degraded land for green biohydrogen production and bioenergy generation.

Biomass Cultivation on Degraded Lands for Green Biohydrogen and Bioenergy, Key Highlights of the Meeting

• Exploring Biomass Cultivation on Degraded Lands: The meeting brought together key government ministries, knowledge partners, and research institutes to explore the utilization of degraded, barren, and uncultivated lands for biomass cultivation. 

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• Action Plan for Green Biohydrogen: This biomass will be used to produce green biohydrogen, initiating a comprehensive discussion series among stakeholders to prepare an action plan for enhancing green hydrogen production from biomass.
  • One of the objectives of the National Green Hydrogen Mission is to initiate focused pilots for biomass-based green biohydrogen production. 
  • Therefore, it is important to understand the biomass cultivation ecosystem of the country. 
• Addressing Biomass Cultivation Challenges on Degraded Lands: The meeting aimed to gather inputs on biomass and degraded land availability, identify gaps and challenges in biomass cultivation, and strategize a roadmap for using degraded land for green hydrogen production.
• Harnessing Marine Resources: It presented prospects for seaweed cultivation as biomass for bioenergy production and fostering a start-up ecosystem to boost marine biomanufacturing, aligned with India’s Deep Ocean Mission.
  • It also demonstrated biomass production for green energy using various plants, including algae, molasses, and sugarcane. 
  • It focused on using spineless cactus for green hydrogen production.
• Biomass Data: It emphasized the need for data on characterization of biomass for understanding the potential of biomass.

What is Biomass?

Biomass is the residue of organic matter that comes from living things and is composed of elements such as Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Oxygen, etc. 

• Biomass Energy Conversion: It is a renewable source of energy, which can be converted into useful biofuels, biopower, producer gas and chemicals through the process of gasification, pyrolysis, combustion which involves heat, steam, and oxygen.

Types of Biomass

• Crop Residues– Crop residues are the remnants left in the field after crop harvesting. They include:
  • Rice Straw: It is a byproduct of rice cultivation. It is traditionally used as animal feed,  bedding material, utilized for power generation, biofuels, and as a raw material for biogas production.
  • Wheat Straw: It is the residue left after harvesting wheat. It has potential applications in power generation and as a raw material for bioethanol production.
  • Sugarcane Bagasse: The fibrous residue left after extracting juice from sugarcane. It finds extensive use in heat and power in sugar mills and as a feedstock for bioethanol production.
  • Maize Stalks: Maize stalks are the leftover stems of maize plants after grain harvesting. They can be utilised for animal feed, biomass power generation, and as a raw material for biofuel production.

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• • Cotton Stalks: The remains of cotton plants after harvesting cotton fibres. They have applications as feedstock for paper and board production, fuel for energy generation, or conversion into biochar.Groundnut Shells: These are the outer coverings of groundnut kernels. They can be used as a biomass fuel, animal feed, bio-oil and biochar source.
• Forestry Biomass: Forestry biomass is organic materials derived from forest resources, including trees, shrubs, and other vegetation. 
  • Forest residues have high energy content and are utilized as fuel for power generation and heating. 
  • Woody biomass mainly composes carbohydrates and lignin. 
• Urban and Industrial waste: It refers to organic waste materials generated in urban areas and industrial sectors.
  • Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): It comprises organic, paper and cardboard, wood waste, and other biodegradable materials generated from households and commercial organizations. 
  • Proper segregation and management of MSW can facilitate its utilization for energy generation through processes like anaerobic digestion and combustion.
  • Industrial Residues: These are generated from various industries, including sugar mills, rice mills, and wood industries. 
• Animal waste and manure: Animal waste and manure, often called livestock biomass, is a valuable organic resource derived from livestock farming activities. 
  • Cow dung is the most common type of animal waste and is widely available in agricultural regions.
  • Poultry litter comprises a mixture of bedding material (straw, wood shavings, or sawdust) and manure from poultry farms. It is predominantly derived from chickens and turkeys.
• Energy crops:  Energy crops are specific crops grown to produce biomass to be used as a renewable energy source. 
  • These crops are preferred for their high yield, fast development, and efficient transformation into biofuels, biogas, or solid biomass. 
  • Switchgrass: Switchgrass has high biomass yield potential, requires low input, and is adaptable to different soil conditions. It can be used to produce cellulosic ethanol and solid biomass for combustion.
  • Miscanthus: It is a perennial grass having high biomass productivity and low input requirements and can be harvested annually.
  • Willow: A fast-growing woody perennial that can be harvested every 2-3 years. It is used to create biomass pellets, biofuels or as a feedstock for biogas production.
• Aquatic Biomass: These organic matter are derived from aquatic or marine sources, including plants, algae, and aquatic animals.
  • Algae: They are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and valuable compounds. 
  • Aquatic Plants: They utilize water, sunlight, and nutrients from their environment for photosynthesis, resulting in efficient biomass production. 
  • Seaweed and water hyacinth are commonly used in biofuels, fertilizers, and bioplastics applications.

Advantages Of Biomass Energy

• Reducing Carbon Footprint: Bioenergy systems offer significant possibilities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions due to their immense potential to replace fossil fuels in energy production. 
• Waste Management: Besides the biogas generated from the process which can be used for energy generation and cooking, anaerobic digestion yields organic fertilizer usable in farming.
• Diversity in Energy Source: Biomass can play a major role in reducing the reliance on fossil fuels by making use of thermo-chemical conversion technologies.  This protects communities from volatile fossil fuels.
• Energy Security: Since biomass energy uses domestically produced fuels, biomass power greatly reduces our dependence on foreign energy sources and increases national energy security.
• Utilizing Energy-Rich Residues for Electricity Production: A large amount of energy is expended in the cultivation and processing of crops like sugarcane, coconut, and rice which can be met by utilizing energy-rich residues for electricity production. 
• Flexibility and Reliability as a Renewable Energy Source: When compared with wind and solar energy, biomass plants are able to provide crucial, reliable baseload generation. 
  • Biomass is relatively a much reliable source of renewable energy free of fluctuation and does not need storage as is the case with solar energy.
• Rural development: The development of efficient biomass handling technology, improvement of agroforestry systems and establishment of small and large-scale biomass-based power plants can play a major role in rural development. 
  • Biomass energy could also aid in modernizing the agricultural economy. 

Benefits of Using Degraded Land for Biomass Production

• Decreased land-use Change: Using degraded land to produce bioenergy may avoid problems related to land use change because this type of land is usually unsuited to and economically unattractive for food crops. 
• Increased land Productivity: Crops on degraded land, especially perennial crops could significantly increase the productivity of the land and would have little negative impact on biodiversity and GHG balance.
• Social And Economic Development:  Using land with zero or little previous productivity can contribute to social and economic development in rural regions.
• Realizing Goals of Bonn Challenge: Sustainable bioenergy production that does not conflict with food, animal feed and materials production, could play a part in realizing the goals of Bonn Challenge.
  • The Bonn Challenge uses a forest landscape restoration (FLR) approach, aiming to restore the ecological integrity of the land while also providing benefits for people by creating multifunctional landscapes.

Biomass Cultivation in India

• Share in Energy Mix: In India, biomass accounts for almost 32% of the primary energy mix. 
• Available Biomass: Annually, about 750 million metric tonnes of biomass is available in the country.
• Potential:  A surplus biomass of about 230 million metric tonnes is available from agricultural residues, which has a hydrogen production potential of 7-8 million tonnes from dried feedstock. 
  • Urban India annually generates about 55 million tonnes of Municipal solid waste (MSW), which has a hydrogen production potential of 1.8 million tonnes. 
• Biomass Power and Cogeneration Projects in India: Currently, over 800 biomass power and bagasse/non-bagasse cogeneration projects aggregating to 10,170 MW capacity have been installed in the country for feeding power to the grid.

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Regulatory Framework for Biomass in India

• Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE): It is the nodal ministry in charge of developing and carrying out policies and initiatives for the advancement and promotion of renewable energy sources, including biomass.
• Central Electricity Regulatory Commission(CERC): It is the central authority for regulating the production, distribution, and transmission of electricity. 
  • It determines the costs and rules for biomass and other renewable energy projects.
• State-level regulatory commission(SERC): It oversees the electricity industry in their states. They decide rules, tariffs, and policies for biomass and other renewable energy projects.

Biomass Energy Challenges in India

• Seasonality of Agricultural Biomass Availability: Biomass from agriculture is available only for a short period after its harvesting, which can stretch only for 2-3 months in a year. 
• High Cost of Biomass Energy: The high cost of biomass energy production vis-a-vis lower cost of power produced from coal-fired power plants and other renewable energy sources.  
  • Since the raw inputs of biomass come from the unorganized sector, its price cannot be regulated by the government, enhancing the cost of generation per unit.
  • At INR 6 (USD 0.073) per unit, energy from biomass is expensive, compared to INR 2.20-2.30 for solar, and INR 3-5 from most coal plants.
• Lack of public data on biomass availability across geographies: The data related to availability of biomass across geographies, especially at the district/block level, is not easily available and requires case-by-case research. 
  • This affects the planning of such projects. Hence, most stakeholders conduct their own analysis to assess the availability of biomass. 
  • Subsequently, availability of surplus biomass for bioenergy production may or may not be accurate, time efficient and cost-effective. 
• Limited Storage Options: Storing biomass residue is a long-standing issue in India. For agri-based biomass residue, limited storage capacity is among the primary reasons for stubble burning. 
  • This is more prominent in northern Indian states, where with limited offtake and storage options, excess biomass is disposed of by burning crop residue in open fields.
• Supply Chain Bottlenecks: Carriage and transportation of biomass require customized vehicles, especially for agri-waste due to its varying sizes and density. 
  • So far, this has seen limited commercialized options and is done mostly through make-shift arrangements. 
• Limited offtake of Biofertilisers: There is a pressing need to promote the use of biofertilisers by farmers. 
  • There is still a lack of awareness in the farming community on how the use of biofertilizers can enhance the nutrient uptake, growth, yield, nutrition efficiency and quality of crops, besides helping local allied industries to flourish. 
  • The slow uptake of biofertilizers is one of the major discouraging factors for private sector investment in the biogas sector in the country. 
• Limited Platforms for Biomass Trading: There are limited platforms available for trading and exchange of raw and processed biomass.
  • At present, biomass trading in the country is fragmented and exists only in a handful of states, despite the need for biomass or waste for bioenergy projects in the country. 
• Limited Access to Finance: Financing biomass projects is challenging due to high capital costs, lack of adequate collateral, and high risks associated with biomass projects. 
  • This results in the slow adoption of biomass projects and reduced investments in the sector.
• Lack of Infrastructure for Equitable Power Parity: There is a substantial demand for biomass in the power, cement and steel sectors. 
  • For instance, to aggregate 1,500 MT of biomass, approximately one acre of la­nd is required and Gross working capital is required at Rs 3,000 per mt: Rs 450 million ($ 5.63 million).
• Lack of coordination among the stakeholders: There are multiple ministries involved, including Agriculture, Environment, Renewable energy, and Power. 
• Environmental concerns: Biomass energy production in India has raised environmental concerns, primarily due to the use of agricultural waste as feedstock for power plants. 
  • Burning of agricultural waste contributes to air pollution, with significant implications for hu­man health and the environment. 

Way Forward

• Efficient Procurement and Storage Mechanisms: There is a need to have robust institutional and market mechanisms for efficient procurement of the required quantity of biomass, within this stipulated short time, and safe storage till it is finally used.
• Government Support and Incentives for Cost Reduction:  Some costs can be lowered if the government provides incentives and subsidies for the capital cost of the plants. 
  • Tax relief to compress the crop residue, better village roads for easy transportation, as well as the availability of low-cost, non-arable land for aggregation, would make the sector attractive for investment.
  • The government can also encourage the participation of private sector entities in the biomass sector by providing tax incentives and subsidies for projects.
• Centralized Agency for Streamlined Biomass Projects: The need of the hour is to have a centralized agency with a single-window time-bound mechanism of clearances for faster communication and effective implementation.
• Cleaner Technologies for Biomass Combustion: The government can en­courage the use of cleaner and more efficient technologies for the combustion of biomass. 
  • This could include the use of biomass gasification-based cogeneration technology that can produce electricity from paddy straw by a densification-gasification process. 
• Promoting Sustainable Practices and Microgrids for Biomass Utilization: The government can provide incentives to farmers to adopt sustainable agricultural practices that reduce waste production. 
  • Co-firing biomass is not an ideal solution, as the carbon-positive actions of collecting, tra­nsporting, densifying, re-transporting and crushing will not get neutralized by the utilization of carbon-neutral fuel. 
  • Develo­ping microgrids with the available biomass is a more viable solution and can build a synergetic circular economy.
• Sustained Biomass Supply: A robust business model is necessary to motivate local entrepreneurs to take up the responsibility of supplying biomass to processing facilities. 
  • Collection centers covering 2-3 villages can be set up to facilitate decentralization of biomass supply mechanisms. 
• Exploring Energy Crops: Biomass power plant operators may explore the possibility of using energy crops as a substitute for crop wastes, in case of crop failure. 
  • Bamboo and napier grass can be grown on marginal and degraded lands.
  • The R&D can help generate more biomass with less resources like water, specifically in the context of Napier grass, energy cane, and cactus.
• Strategic Utilization of Public and Private Land for Biomass Cultivation: There is a need to identify biomass for cultivation and identification of government-owned land available for cultivating biomass for enhancing hydrogen production in the country. 
  • This approach of utilizing both public and private land for sustainable biomass cultivation would meet the country’s energy demand, reduce dependency on fuel imports, generate revenue, and significantly contribute to bioenergy production.
• Efficient Utilization of Agro Residues:  Various types of various agro residues such as stubble/straw/stalk/husk which are surplus and not being used as animal fodder for making the biomass pellets. 
  • Ex- Bamboo and its by-products, Horticulture waste such as dry leaves and trimmings obtained from maintenance & pruning of trees and plants.
• Encouraging Foreign Direct In­ve­stments: This can also help in increasing the availability of finance for biomass projec­ts, wherein structured finance instruments can be made available for this sector.
• Financial Instruments and Carbon Markets: Green bonds for the development of the biomass-bioenergy sector, carbon markets with specific renewable energy certificates will contribute to the sector’s financial stability and growth. 

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