Recently, the Maharashtra government revoked two Government Resolutions (GRs) which introduced Hindi as the third language.
Maharashtra’s Language Policy Controversy
- On June 29, 2025, Maharashtra government withdrew the government resolutions (GRs) of April 16 which had made Hindi mandatory while the second (June 17) made it optional but with restrictive clauses.
- Dr. Narendra Jadhav Committee: A committee was to consult stakeholders and recommend the implementation of the three-language policy, including the class of introduction and language choices.
Recent Tamil Nadu Controversy:
- The Union Government has withheld ₹2,152 crore in funds due to Tamil Nadu opposing implementing the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
- Though the NEP says the third language could be any Indian language, the state sees it as a ploy to impose Hindi through the back door.
|
About Three Language Policy
- The three-language formula is an education framework that was first introduced in the National Education Policy (NEP) of 1968.
- It mandated the teaching of Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states, alongside English and a regional language.
Linguistic Federalism
- Linguistic Federalism refers to a system where states have autonomy to recognize, preserve, and promote regional languages within the broader framework of national unity.
- Constitutional Basis: Articles 345 (state official languages), 350A & 350B (education & safeguards for linguistic minorities), and Schedule VIII reinforce this principle.
- Union–State Balance: Centre promotes Hindi (Art. 351), but states choose their own official language(s) (Art. 345).
- Dual structure ensures cultural preservation and administrative efficiency.
- Core Idea: Recognizes India’s diversity not as a hurdle but as a constitutional strength. Promotes cooperative federalism in language policy.
|
Historical Context and Policy Evolution of the Three-Language Formula
- Constitutional Vision for Linguistic Pluralism: Articles 344 and 351 of the Constitution envision the progressive use of Hindi for official purposes but explicitly mandate that it must evolve by assimilating the forms, styles, and vocabulary of other Indian languages listed in the Eighth Schedule.
- Article 351 emphasizes enriching Hindi by drawing on Sanskrit and Hindustani, aiming for Hindi to be a medium of India’s composite culture, not a hegemonic language.
- First Official Language Commission and the Munshi-Ayyangar Formula (1950s) (K.M. Munshi and N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar)
- After independence, strong resistance from South Indian states—particularly Tamil Nadu—to the exclusive promotion of Hindi prompted the Munshi-Ayyangar compromise: Hindi as the official language, with English retained as an associate language.
- The Official Language Act, 1963 (amended 1967) formalized the continued use of English alongside Hindi indefinitely for official purposes.
- Kothari Commission (1964–66): The Birth of the Three-Language Formula
- The Education Commission (Kothari Commission) was the first to formally articulate the Three-Language Formula.
- Objectives:
- Promote national integration.
- Ensure regional language proficiency.
- Encourage understanding of Hindi or another Indian language and English as a global language.
- Three-language formula given by the Kothari Commission(1964–66):
- First language: It will be the mother tongue or regional language.
- Second language: In Hindi speaking states, it will be other modern Indian languages or English.
- In non-Hindi speaking states, it will be Hindi or English.
- Third Language: In Hindi speaking states, it will be English or a modern Indian language.
- In the non-Hindi speaking state, it will be English or a modern Indian language.
- Policy Codification in the 1968 National Policy on Education: Based on the Kothari Commission, the 1968 NPE formally adopted the formula.
- Aimed to:
- Reduce Hindi vs. non-Hindi linguistic tensions.
- Make Sanskrit available as an additional language.
- Preserve the linguistic richness of Eighth Schedule languages.
- Modifications in 1986 and 1992: The 1986 NPE and its 1992 revision reiterated the formula but acknowledged:
- Implementation gaps, especially in Hindi-speaking states.
- States like Tamil Nadu continued with a two-language policy (Tamil + English), rejecting Hindi due to popular resistance.
- NEP 2020: New Flexibility with Old Foundations
- NEP 2020 retains the spirit of the three-language formula but removes rigidity:
- States are free to choose any two Indian languages and one foreign language.
- No language will be imposed, reaffirming federal and cultural sensitivities .
- Encourages learning in mother tongue/home language till at least Grade 5, optionally till Grade 8.
Constitutional Provisions on Language
- Eighth Schedule: Lists 22 languages, including Marathi, Hindi, Tamil, etc., for official recognition.
- Initially included 14 languages; Sindhi added in 1967, Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali in 1992, and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali in 2004. Currently, 38 languages are under consideration for inclusion.
- Article 120(1): Business in Parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or in English.
- Article 210(1): Business in the Legislature of a state shall be transacted in the Official Language or Languages of the state or in Hindi or in English.
- Article 344(1): Establishes a Commission to recommend the progressive use of Hindi for Union purposes, with members representing Eighth Schedule languages.
- Article 351: Directs the Union to promote Hindi as a medium of expression for India’s composite culture, assimilating elements from other Eighth Schedule languages (primarily Sanskrit, secondarily others) without interfering with its genius.
- Article 343: Declares Hindi in Devanagari script as the Union’s official language, with English continuing for 15 years (extendable by law).
- Clause: (1) The official language of the union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.
- Clause: (2) for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, English language shall continue to be used for all official purposes of Union for which it was being used
- Article 345: Allows states to adopt one or more languages (including Hindi) for official purposes.
- Article 346: Official Language for communication between one state and the Union.
- Article 347: Provides for special provision relating to language spoken by a Section of the population of a state.
- Article 350A: Mandates states to provide primary education in the mother tongue for linguistic minorities.
- Article 350B: Appoints a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to safeguard their rights.
- Official Languages Act, 1963: Permits continued use of English alongside Hindi for Union purposes and communication with non-Hindi states, ensuring translations where necessary.
|
Significance of Implementing the Three-Language Formula
- Promotes National Integration While Preserving Diversity: It ensures students in Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-speaking states develop mutual understanding of other Indian languages, fostering intercultural harmony.
- The Kothari Commission (1964–66) recommended the Three-Language Formula to balance national unity with regional linguistic autonomy.
- A Marathi student learning Hindi and English builds communicative bridges with both the Hindi heartland and global contexts, without losing Marathi identity.
- Strengthens Federalism Through Linguistic Inclusion: Eighth Schedule of the Constitution enlists 22 languages to be promoted equitably; implementation of the formula operationalises this constitutional ideal.
- Article 351 urges Hindi promotion without displacing other languages—thus the formula allows states to choose second and third languages, respecting federal structure.
- Educational Equity Across Regions: Helps level the playing field for students from both Hindi and non-Hindi states in national competitive exams and cultural exchange.
- NEP 2020 advocates that students across India should study three languages, at least two of which are Indian. This seeks to eliminate regional imbalances in language access.
- Preservation and Enrichment of Indian Languages: The formula creates a functional demand for minority and classical languages, thereby preventing language death and aiding linguistic research.
- Inclusion of Sanskrit or Tamil as third languages can sustain classical learning and literature while increasing youth engagement.
- Bridges Rural–Urban and Government–People Language Gaps: Hindi and English dominate official communication, while many Indians speak regional tongues. A multilingual education allows better access to state services and literacy in official communication.
- Helps implement the Official Language Act (1963), which ensures both Hindi and English are used for Union-level communication.
- Enhances Employment and Mobility: Language skills improve access to public sector jobs, cultural industries, and interstate mobility.
- NEP 2020 emphasizes multilingual proficiency as a 21st-century skill necessary for cognitive development and national/global engagement .
- A Tamil student fluent in Hindi and English can work in Maharashtra, Delhi, or abroad without linguistic barriers—boosting national labor mobility.
- Mitigates Linguistic Hegemony: Formalizing a formula with equal respect for all Scheduled Languages prevents any one language (e.g., Hindi) from becoming a default imposition.
- In politically sensitive states (like Maharashtra), it guards against the perception of Hindi cultural dominance, preserving democratic consensus.
Language Diversity in India
| Indicator |
Data / Fact |
| Total number of languages (Census 2011) |
121 languages spoken by 10,000+ people each |
| Total mother tongues recorded |
1,369 distinct mother tongues identified |
| Most Spoken Language |
Hindi (43.63%), followed by Bengali (8.03%), Marathi (6.86%), Telugu (6.70%) |
| Trilingualism trend (Urban India) |
Census 2011: 7% of Indians are trilingual; 26% bilingual |
Key Concerns and Issues in the Three-Language Formula
- Resistance in Non-Hindi States: Tamil Nadu has historically opposed Hindi imposition, tracing back to the Anti-Hindi Agitations (1937, 1965). The state follows a two-language policy (Tamil and English) instead.
- The 2025 Maharashtra decision to make Hindi the default second language till Class 5 sparked political backlash, especially from regional parties.
- North-South Divide: In North India, Hindi is the predominant language, but in South India, regional languages like Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada hold stronger ground.
- The South perceives the policy as favoring Hindi-speakers, while many in the North do not feel the need to learn a South Indian language.
- Lack of Implementation Uniformity: The formula is implemented unevenly across states.
- Tamil Nadu has long rejected the formula in favor of a two-language policy (Tamil + English). Meanwhile, Hindi-speaking states rarely teach a South Indian language.
- Limited Language Choices in Practice: Though NEP 2020 allows multiple Indian language options, schools cannot realistically offer 15+ languages.
- Small demand for regional languages (e.g., Tamil in Bihar) makes real choice infeasible.
- Students are forced to select Hindi or English, defeating the formula’s pluralist intent.
- Inadequate Infrastructure and Teacher Shortage: Scarcity of trained language teachers and lack of textbooks/materials in regional or tribal languages.
- Kothari Commission had already warned of the difficulty in providing quality teaching across three languages, which still persists today.
- Linguistic Inequality and Language Hierarchy: Hindi and English enjoy dominance in governance, education, and employment, sidelining Scheduled and tribal languages.
- Article 351 speaks of enriching Hindi with all Scheduled Languages, but implementation has strengthened Hindi’s hegemony, not diversity.
- Undermines Federal and Cultural Autonomy: Central directives on language are seen as violating state powers over education and culture.
- Maharashtra’s retreat from its Hindi push reflects how linguistic decisions must be stakeholder-driven.
Multilingual Education Policies in Other Countries
Canada: Bilingualism with Federal Support
- Official Bilingualism (English and French) under the Official Languages Act (1969).
- Education Model: Provinces provide French Immersion Programs even in English-dominated areas.
Switzerland: Pluralist Federal Language Model
- Four official languages — German, French, Italian, Romansh.
- Language of instruction varies by canton; students must learn at least one other national language.
South Africa: Multilingualism as Post-Apartheid Justice
- Policy: 11 official languages under 1996 Constitution.
- Learners have the right to be taught in their home language where feasible.
Singapore: “Mother Tongue” + English Bilingual Model
- English as the main medium + mandatory mother tongue (Chinese, Malay, or Tamil).
- Objective: English ensures global relevance; mother tongue preserves cultural identity
|
Way Forward for Strengthening the Three-Language Formula
- Ensure True Federal Consultation and State Autonomy: All language-related policy decisions should be preceded by consultation with state governments and local stakeholders.
- Maharashtra’s reversal shows the need for consensus-based implementation rather than top-down directives.
- Flexible Language Choice Within Regional Context: Encourage states to select any two Indian languages suited to their local demographic (e.g., tribal areas can include Santali or Gondi).
- This allows the policy to reflect linguistic realities, avoiding default reliance on Hindi.
- Language Infrastructure Support from Centre: The Union government must fund teacher recruitment and textbook development for all Scheduled and major tribal languages.
- Achieve NEP 2020’s 6% of GDP education target, especially for multilingual pedagogy.
- Prioritize Mother-Tongue or Regional Language in Early Education: As per NEP 2020, ensure mother tongue or regional language is the medium of instruction at least till Grade 5.
- Establish National Language Diversity Index and Monitoring: Track the actual use of different Indian languages in education via a Language Diversity Index (LDI) reported annually.
- Similar indices exist for biodiversity and gender—language can follow suit.
- Mass Awareness Campaign on Linguistic Equality: Launch campaigns promoting equal respect for all Indian languages, backed by cultural bodies like Sahitya Akademi.
- Reduces social bias towards English and Hindi and affirms the constitutional vision of India’s pluralist linguistic identity.
- Promoting Multilingualism Naturally: Census data of 2011 shows that 26% of Indians are bilingual, and 7% are trilingual, with higher rates in urban areas.
- Rapid urbanisation and labor migration are likely to increase multilingualism organically, reducing the need for compulsory language policies.
- Global Competitiveness: Proficiency in English has been a key driver of India’s success in global service industries.
- While learning additional Indian languages is desirable, it should not come at the cost of English or regional language proficiency.
- Reciprocal Learning: Encourage Hindi-speaking states to learn Southern languages (e.g., Tamil, Kannada) to foster mutual respect.
- Promote Sanskrit as a cultural link, as per Kothari Commission recommendations.
Conclusion
The Three-Language Policy, rooted in constitutional and educational frameworks, seeks to foster national integration while preserving linguistic diversity. However, its success hinges on addressing regional sensitivities, ensuring resource availability, and promoting equitable language choices through federal collaboration.
To get PDF version, Please click on "Print PDF" button.
PWOnlyIAS
