Evolution Of Education In Colonial India

Introduction

Initially, education was primarily focused on serving the interests of the British Empire, with an emphasis on producing a class of Indians who could assist in administrative tasks. However, Indian leaders and reformers began advocating for broader access to education, leading to the establishment of schools and colleges catering to different sections of society during education in colonial India. This period laid the groundwork for the modern education system in India, which continues to evolve and expand today.

Company Rule and Initial Educational Initiatives

• During education in colonial India, the East India Company, primarily focused on trade, showed minimal interest in education (Until 1813). A few limited initiatives by individuals are as follows:  [UPSC 2018]
• Calcutta Madrasah (1781): Warren Hastings established it for the study of Muslim law and related subjects.
• Sanskrit College (1791): Jonathan Duncan set it up at Benaras for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.
• Fort William College (1800): Wellesley established it to train civil servants of the Company in the languages and customs of Indians (closed in 1802). [UPSC 2020]
• By the early 19th century, there was pressure for Western Education by enlightened Indians and missionaries advocating for modern, secular, and Western education to address social, economic, and political issues. During the time of education in colonial India, initiatives taken by the British government for their vested interests are as follows:

Charter Act of 1813: A Modest Beginning [UPSC 2018]

• Introduction of Modern Sciences: It incorporated the principle of promoting knowledge of modern sciences in the country. 
  • It directed the company to sanction an annual allocation of one lakh rupees for education. There was delayed Implementation due to a lack of fund allocation until 1823. 
• Raja Rammohan Roy’s Efforts: led to a grant being sanctioned for Calcutta College, which was set up in 1817 by educated Bengalis, imparting English education in Western humanities and sciences. 
• The government also set up three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi, and Agra.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy: 19th Century Debates [UPSC 2018]

• Anglicists: Advocated an exclusive focus on modern studies. 
• Orientalists: Emphasized the expansion of traditional Indian learning. 
• There was a disagreement on the medium of instruction among Anglicists. 
• One faction was for the English language as the medium, while the other faction was for Indian languages (vernaculars) for the purpose.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835)

• Lord Macaulay held the view that “Indian learning was inferior to European learning”.
• It settled in favour of Anglicists. English became the medium in schools and colleges, neglecting mass education and government resources dedicated to Western sciences and literature. 
• It planned to educate a small section of upper middle classes who would act as interpreters and be “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect”. This was known as the Downward Filtration Theory.

Thomson’s Village Education (1843-53)

• James Thomson (lieutenant governor of North-West Provinces) introduced vernacular-based village education, teaching practical subjects to Revenue and Public Works Department personnel.

Wood’s Despatch (1854): The Magna Carta of English Education [UPSC 2018]

• During education in colonial India, Iit was the first comprehensive plan for the spread of education in India. 
• It asked the Government to assume responsibility for mass education. 
• It rejected the ‘downward filtration theory’. 
• Systematized Hierarchy: of  Vernacular primary schools in villages at the bottom, followed by Anglo-Vernacular High Schools and affiliated colleges at the district level, and affiliating universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
• English medium for higher studies, vernaculars at the school level.
• Stress on female and vocational education with emphasis on teacher training.
• Education in government institutions to be secular., especially during education in colonial India.
• Recommended grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.

Post-Wood’s Despatch Developments (Late 19th Century)

• Establishment of Universities (1857): In Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras universities.
• The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune at Calcutta (1849). Bethune was the president of the Council of Education, and due to his effort, girls’ schools were set up on a sound footing and brought under the government’s grants-in-aid and inspection system.
• Technical Institutes: like the Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar) and the Engineering Institute at Roorkee were established.
• The dominance of ideals in Wood’s Despatch (19th Century) led to the Westernization of the education system with European-run institutions.
• Also, missionary enterprises and private Indian efforts gradually emerged.
• After the Crown’s takeover of education in colonial India, the need for educational reform became apparent. 
• The initiatives shaped the trajectory of education in colonial India.

Hunter Education Commission (1882–83)

• Objective: In 1882, the government W.W. Hunter Commission to review the progress of education in the country since the Despatch of 1854. 
• During education in colonial India, the Hunter Commission mostly confined its recommendations to primary and secondary education.
• Emphasis on the state’s special care for the extension of primary education through vernacular languages.
• During the time of education in colonial India, it recommended the transfer of control of primary education to newly set up district and municipal boards.
• Proposed the division of secondary education into literary (university-oriented) and vocational (commercial careers).
• Highlighted inadequate facilities for female education and gender equality, especially outside presidency towns.
• In the coming years, there was rapid growth and expansion of secondary and collegiate education with the participation of Indians. 
• Teaching-cum-examining universities were set up, such as Punjab University (1882) and Allahabad University (1887).

Indian Universities Act, 1904

• Raleigh Commission (1902): At the time of education in colonial India, Iit was set up to go into the conditions and prospects of universities in India and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution and working. 
  • The commission precluded reporting on primary or secondary education. Its Recommendations: 
• Universities are instructed to prioritize study and research.
• Reduced the number of university fellows and increased government nomination. The government gained the power to veto and amend university regulations.
• Stricter condition for affiliation of private colleges.
• Sanctioned funds (5 lakh per annum) for the improvement of higher education and universities.
• Curzon justified these measures in the name of quality and efficiency, but actually sought to restrict education and to discipline the educated towards loyalty to the government. 
• Nationalists saw it as an attempt to strengthen imperialism. 
• Gokhale referred to it as a “retrograde measure.”

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913)

• Baroda’s compulsory primary education (1906) influenced national leaders’ advocacy for reform in education. Along with Gokhale’s Resolution of 1910 for compulsory primary education led to provisions:

• Refused direct responsibility for compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provinces to provide free elementary education to poor and backward sections.
• Encouraged private efforts and emphasized improving the quality of secondary schools.
• Proposed the establishment of a university in each province.
• For women’s education, it was suggested that there should be a curriculum of practical utility for girls, and that examinations of girls should not get much importance; however, there should be an increase in the number of women teachers and inspectors.

Sadler University Commission or Calcutta University Commission (1917–19)

• During education in colonial India,it was constituted under the chairmanship of Michael Sadler. 
• Aim: It was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta University, but its recommendations were applicable more or less to other universities. 
• It reviewed the entire field, from school education to university education. 
• It held the view that for the improvement of university education, improvement of secondary education was a necessary precondition. Its recommendations:
• Advocating a 12-year school course and Students should enter university after an intermediate stage (rather than matric) for a three-year degree course in university. 
• At the time of education in colonial India, Iit was done to prepare students for the university stage; relieve universities of a large number of below-university-standard students; and  
• Provide collegiate education to those not planning to go through the university stage.
• A separate board of secondary and intermediate education should be set up for administration and control of secondary and intermediate education.
• There should be less rigidity in framing university regulations.
• Proposed centralization of universities as autonomous bodies. Emphasized improvement in secondary education as a prerequisite for university development.
• Recommended extending female education, applied scientific and technological education, teachers’ training, including those for professional and vocational colleges.

Education Under Dyarchy

• At the time of education in colonial India, the government ceased to directly intervene in educational matters and transferred responsibility for education to provincial ministries under the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms. Additionally, government grants, which had been liberally approved since 1902, were discontinued.
• Even though financial constraints hindered any significant growth, education nevertheless increased, particularly as a result of charitable initiatives.

Hartog Committee (1929)

• Appointed by Simon Commission under the chairmanship of Phillip Hartog to assess education standards to address deteriorating standards. Its recommendations: 
  • Primary Education: Identified shortcomings, wastage, and stagnation in the primary education system and recommended government control and inspection of primary schools. 
  • Adaptation of School Timings and Curriculum: The school timings and the curriculum should be such as to suit the environment and conditions of the locality where they are, and the subjects selected should have practical value for the students.
  • Enhancing Primary School Teacher Quality: There should be refresher courses and training programmes to improve the quality of primary school teachers. 
  • School Inspection: should increase in number as well as in efficiency. 
  • Primary Schools: should serve as community centres that could provide adult education, medical relief, and facilities for recreation to the people of rural areas.
  • Secondary School Education: Criticized examination-oriented secondary education. Advocated the introduction of a diversified curriculum, including industrial and commercial subjects. 
• Higher education: It suggested that affiliated universities be established besides unitary and residential universities, 
• The condition of university libraries be improved, honours courses be opened, and students be admitted based on abilities and aptitudes. 

• • • The committee asserted the importance of developing learned and liberal-minded individuals who would be capable of undertaking responsibilities.

• Women’s Education: Recommended equal importance for boys’ and girls’ education.

• • More primary schools for girls should be established; and 
  • The curriculum should include hygiene, home science, and music in secondary schools.
  • Attention should also be given to women empowerment and their training for teaching jobs.
  • It improved the quality of primary education along with enhanced secondary school education and increased affiliated colleges.

Sargent Plan of Education (1944)

• Following World War II, Sir John Sargent, the Government of India’s Educational Advisor, was assigned to draft a memorandum for the advancement of Indian education, which was submitted to the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944. Its recommendations:
• Pre-primary Education: Advocated free pre-primary education for ages 3 to 6. Teachers in these schools should be trained women.
• Universal Compulsory Education: Proposed universal, compulsory, and free education for ages 6 to 14. Emphasis on learning through education, physical training etc.
• High School Education: Recommended six-year high school education for selected children from the age of 11 years with academic and technical/vocational streams. 
  • The mother tongue would be the medium of instruction in all high schools while English would be a compulsory second language. 
  • Students were not to leave school till the age of 14.
• University Degree: course after the higher secondary examination should be for three years; the existent intermediate course should be abolished;

• University Education: standard must be improved, and admission method must be changed in order that university course could be taken by capable students; 
• Poor Students: should be given financial assistance; 
• Teachers: should be competent and their service conditions improved;  a high standard in post-graduate studies and in pure applied research should be focused on; 
• During education in colonial India, an all-India organisation on the lines of the University Grants Committee of England should be set up to coordinate the activities of the different universities
• Also emphasized on liquidation of adult illiteracy in 20 years, adult education, medical check-ups in schools, and special education for the physically handicapped, setting up of employment bureaus.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• An all-India education conference was held in Wardha, India, in October 1937 by the Congress. 
• Zakir Hussain Committee: developed a thorough national basic education program in accordance with the resolutions that were passed there. It came to be known as Nai Talim.
• Nai Talim: The principle behind this scheme was ‘learning through activity’ and was based on Gandhi’s ideas published in a series of articles in the weekly Harijan.
  • At the time of education in colonial India, it advocated free and compulsory education for ages between 7 to 14.
  • Included a basic handicraft in the syllabus and the first seven years of schooling to be an integral part of the free and compulsory nationwide education system. 
  • It would be taught in the mother tongue, and Hindi to be taught in areas where it was not the mother tongue.
  • Strategies to be developed for fostering community engagement around schools through service in education in colonial India.
  • The social and scientific implications of a craft are to be studied. 
  • Mathematics, general science, social studies, painting, music, and physical education to be part of the curriculum, and no religious and moral education should be included.
• Constraints and Limitations: There was limited development of this scheme due to the onset of the Second World War and the resignation of Congress ministries in 1939.

Conclusion

• Initially designed to serve education in colonial India interests, education gradually became a focal point for Indian nationalists advocating for broader access and a curriculum that balanced modern sciences with traditional Indian learning. 
• The changes made to education during education in colonial India still affect how schools and colleges work today. This shows how education in colonial India history has a big influence on how things are done now in education.

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