Swadeshi Movement: Spread, Extremist & Moderate Phase

Introduction

The Swadeshi Movement was a significant phase in India’s struggle for independence, characterized by the promotion of indigenous goods and industries over foreign products during the early 20th century. It emerged as a response to the partition of Bengal by the British and  British economic policies that favored imports from Britain, undermining Indian industries and artisans. The movement aimed to foster self-reliance, economic empowerment, and national pride by encouraging the use of locally produced goods and boycotting British goods.

Extremist Phase (1905-18)

• Factors for Rise of Extremism
  • Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule: 
    • Moderate writings exposed the real character of Britishers. [UPSC 2015]
    • Dadabhai Naoroji wrote: “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India”.
    • MG Ranade wrote: “Essays on Indian Economics: A Collection of Essays and Speeches”.
    • R.C Dutt wrote: “Economic History of India”.
• G.Subramania Iyer: “Economic aspects of British Rule in India.”
  • Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect: Leaders like Tilak, Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal motivated the nationalists.
  • Growth of Education: Youth became educated but could not get employment.
• International Influences
  • Japan’s progress after 1868 (transformation into an industrial power), 
  • National movements in Russia, Turkey, Ireland, Egypt, Persia, and China, 
  • Defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians in 1896, 
  • The British facing reverses in the Boer Wars (1899–1902), and
  • Japan’s victory over Russia in 1905 exploded the Myth of European Invincibility. 
• Existence of a Militant School of Thought
  • Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Dutta, Aurobindo Ghosh, and Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal; 
  • Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra; and
  • Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab.

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Conservative Policies of Curzon

• Calcutta Corporation Amendment Act, 1899: It increased the strength of nominated members over the elected in municipal corporations.
• Organization of Delhi Durbar: For the accession of Edward VII, Curzon spent 2 million rupees.
• Appointed Indian University Commission in 1902 headed by Thomas Raleigh:  Abolished autonomy of Indian Universities.
• Indian Official Secret Act, 1904: It suppressed Freedom of the Press.
• Divided Bengal into Two Halves – West and East: Based on language and religion, to weaken the nerve centre of Indian nationalism.

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The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1903–1905)

• Origins: The Swadeshi Movement originated in response to the British decision to partition Bengal, officially announced in December 1903. [UPSC 2016]
• Strategy of Divide and Rule: While the official reason was administrative efficiency, the actual motive was perceived to be the British desire to weaken Bengal, a center of Indian nationalism. 
  • The partition aimed to divide Bengalis based on language and religion.
• Leadership: Led by leaders like Surendranath Banerjea, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray.
• Methods of Opposition: Used methods like petitions, public meetings, and newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee to oppose the partition.
• Announcement of Partition: Despite opposition, the government announced the partition on 19 July 1905, leading to massive protests. (The province came into existence on 16 October 1905)
• Boycott Resolution: It was passed on August 7, 1905, marking the formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement. [UPSC 2023]

Spread of Movement and Congress’s Position

• The movement spread beyond Bengal, including Poona, Bombay, Punjab, Delhi, and Madras.
• INCs, in its 1905 session at Benaras ( G.K Gokhale), condemned the partition and approved the Swadeshi Movement.
• In the Congress session held at Calcutta (1906)(Dadabhai Naoroji), it was declared that the goal of the Indian National Congress was “self-government” or Swaraj.
• The Moderate-Extremist dispute over the pace of the movement and techniques of struggle reached a deadlock at the Surat session (1907), where the party split. [UPSC 2015]

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Moderate vs. Extremist Views

• Moderates: Led by Gokhale condemned partition but didn’t fully support the Extremist’s call for a full-fledged political mass struggle.
• Extremists: Led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh wanted a more aggressive movement seeking swaraj (self-government).
• Extremist Programme and New Forms of Struggle
  • Extremists advocated passive resistance, boycott, and independence from foreign rule.
  • Forms of Struggle: Included boycott of foreign goods, public meetings, volunteer organizations (samiti), and emphasis on self-reliance, a program of swadeshi.
  • Utilization of traditional festivals, and propagation of indigenous ideas through literature, street plays, and folk songs played a significant role in mobilizing the masses.

Significance of Swadeshi Movement

• Restored pride and confidence in Indians. A large number of students and women participated for the first time.
• In August 1906 National Council of Education was established to orient education on nationalist lines. [UPSC 2019].
• Satishchandra Mukherjee pioneered the national education movement by founding the Bhagabat Chatuspathi in 1895. 
  • His newspaper Dawn(1897), and his Dawn Society, were set up in 1902.
• Bengal National College was established with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal, and its first president was Rashbehari Ghosh.
• During the Swadeshi Movement, Rabindranath Tagore founded Shantiniketan.
• In the economic field, indigenous enterprises like the Bengal Chemicals factory by Praful Chandra Ray and, the Swadeshi steam navigation company by Chidambaram Pillai.
• Encouraged indigenous enterprises like textile mills, soap factories, tanneries, banks, and shops to promote Indian products and self-reliance. [UPSC 2019]
• Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar, published Desher Katha in 1904. 
  • The work inspired the Swadeshi activists. 
  • It was the inspiration for many Swadeshi street plays and folk songs, besides becoming mandatory reading for the Swadeshi activists. 
  • He popularized the ideas of Dadabhai Naoroji and Mahadev Govind Ranade and promoted Swadeshi in a popular idiom warned against the colonial state’s “hypnotic conquest of the mind”.[UPSC 2020]
• Samitis: Like Swadesh Bandab Samiti by Ashwini Kumar Dutt, came into existence.
• In Tamil Nadu, Subramania Bharati wrote Sudesha Geetham.
• Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian naturalism over the Indian art scene and took inspiration from Ajanta, Mughal, and Rajput paintings. Nandalal Bose was the first recipient of a scholarship offered by the Indian Society of Oriental Art, founded in 1907. 
• Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafullachandra Roy, and others pioneered original research
• Labour Unrest and Trade Unions: Subramania Siva and Chidambaram Pillai led strikes in Tuticorin and Tirunelveli in a foreign-owned cotton mill. In Rawalpindi (Punjab), the arsenal and railway workers went on strike led by Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh. 
• Stand of Muslims: Few Muslims participated— Barrister Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, Guznavi, Maulana Azad (who joined one of the revolutionary terrorist groups).
  • But most of the upper and middle-class Muslims stayed away or, led by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, supported the partition on the plea that it would give them a Muslim-majority East Bengal.
• Social Base:  Certain sections of the zamindari, the students, the women, and the lower middle classes in cities and towns.
  • But Muslims were missing, especially the Muslim peasantry, because of a conscious government policy of divide and rule
• Annulment of Partition: In 1911, mainly to curb the menace of revolutionary terrorism.

The Surat Split 

• The Congress split into a Moderate-Extremist faction at Surat in December 1907. 

• After Split – Dominance of Moderates: Congress was dominated by Moderates post-split, reiterating commitment to self-government within the British Empire through constitutional methods.
• Government Repression: The government enacted stringent laws (1907-1911) to curb anti-government activities, such as the Seditious Meetings Act (1907), Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908),  Incitement to Offences Act (1908), Explosive Substances Act (1908), and Indian Press Act (1910).

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Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909)

• Context: To pacify moderates as well as Muslims, the British announced the Indian Council  Act, 1909 famously known as Morley-Minto Reforms.
• Lord Minto was the viceroy, and John Morley was the Secretary of State for India.
• Features of the Reforms
• Indirect Elections Introduced: The elected members were to be indirectly elected. 
  • The local bodies were to elect an electoral college, which in turn would elect members of provincial legislatures and the elected members of the Provincial legislatures would vote for central legislature. 
• Separate Electorates for Muslims: Established for Muslims to elect representatives to the central council.
• Increased Elected Members: The number of elected members in both Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils increased. 
  • Non- official majority introduced in the provincial councils.
• Special Representation & Lower Qualifications for Muslims: Muslims granted representation exceeding their population, and lower income qualifications for Muslim voters compared to Hindus.
• Powers of Legislature: Both at the centre and in provinces were enlarged, and the legislatures could now pass resolutions (which may or may not be accepted), ask questions and supplementaries, and vote on separate items in the budget, though the budget as a whole could not be voted upon.
• Indian to be nominated in Viceroy Executive Council: S.P. Sinha became the first Indian member of the Executive Council.
• Evaluation of Reforms: Divisive and Superficial Reforms; Limited Impact on Self-Government; Criticism of Election Process: Too indirect and complex; 
• Limited Use by Few Members: Leaders like Gokhale used the platform to address constructive issues such as education and labour rights but were in the minority.

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Conclusion

• The Swadeshi Movement, born out of resistance to the partition of Bengal, marked a significant chapter in India’s struggle for independence. Through boycotts, protests, and the promotion of indigenous goods, it ignited a spirit of self-reliance and national pride among Indians. 
• However, despite its fervor, the movement faced suppression by British authorities, leading to arrests and repression.
• The aftermath of the Swadeshi Movement saw the implementation of the Morley-Minto Reforms in 1909. These reforms aimed to introduce limited electoral representation for Indians in the legislative councils while maintaining British control over key aspects of governance. 

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