The Indian National Movement: History, Phase, Struggle & Triumph for Independence

Unity in Diversity: Indian National Movement’s Triumph for Independence

The Indian National Movement, a watershed moment in India’s history, reflects the emergence of Indian consciousness and a fervent sense of nationalism. This mass movement took root in the latter part of the 19th century and marked the first successful resistance against British colonial rule.

Prior to the Indian National Movement, the quest for independence was characterized by fragmented, localized efforts scattered across the subcontinent. These fragmented endeavors, divided by regional, cultural, and linguistic differences, struggled to sustain themselves against the formidable British colonial apparatus. India appeared less as a unified nation and more as a conglomeration of distinct kingdoms and regions, all grappling with the same oppressive British presence.

To the colonizers, the Indian subcontinent constituted a singular entity ripe for exploitation. However, beneath this exterior, people identified themselves in diverse ways, often rooted in their regional affiliations. This fragmented identity posed a challenge to the unity required for a successful resistance against British rule.

The Indian National Movement, therefore, played a pivotal role in transforming this mosaic of identities into a cohesive force. It fostered a shared vision of independence, transcending linguistic, cultural, and regional boundaries. This movement sowed the seeds of a united India, where diverse groups came together under the banner of freedom and self-determination, ultimately leading to the successful culmination of India’s struggle for independence.

Indian National Movement’s Impact on a Nation’s Awakening

The Indian National Movement served as a unifying force, bringing together diverse social groups and people into a cohesive nation during a pivotal era in Indian history. The seeds of awareness were sown with the expansion of English education, primarily in key urban centers like Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, during the late 19th century. Intellectuals of that time vociferously opposed the injustices and duplicity inherent in the prevailing societal structure.

As this newfound awareness grew, it began to focus more sharply on the concept of British rule and its profound impact on India. Informed Indians progressively became more critical of British policies imposed on the Indian subcontinent. This article provides comprehensive details related to the Indian National Movement, as a valuable resource for those preparing for the UPSC Exam.

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3 Phases of Indian National Movement: Moderates, Extremists, and Gandhian Era

Based on the time period, leadership, objectives, methods employed, and social base, the Indian National Movement during the years 1885 to 1947 can be categorized into three distinct phases:

1. Moderate Phase (1885-1905): INC’s Constitutional Quest for Indian Representation

Leadership: During this phase, leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and others played significant roles.
Objective: The primary goal was to obtain Dominion Status within the British Empire. Moderate leaders believed in using constitutional means and petitions to achieve political reforms.
Key Features:

• The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked the beginning of this phase.
• Leaders sought greater Indian representation in government and civil service.
  The movement focused on addressing economic issues and social reforms.
• It was marked by petitions, negotiations, and appeals to the British government for greater Indian involvement in decision-making.

2. Extremist Phase (1905-1919): Swaraj Quest through Bold Actions

Leadership: This phase witnessed leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai emerging as prominent figures.
Objective: The objective shifted from Dominion Status to Swaraj or complete self-government. Extremist leaders advocated more radical approaches and direct action against British rule.
Key Features:

• The partition of Bengal in 1905 acted as a catalyst, leading to mass protests and boycotts.
• Extremist leaders encouraged the use of non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and Swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods).
• The movement gained momentum with mass mobilization and a more assertive stance.
• Leaders like Tilak emphasized cultural pride and self-reliance.

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3. Gandhian Phase (1919-1947): Non-Violent Quest for Independence

Leadership: Mahatma Gandhi became the central figure of this phase, with support from leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel.
Objective: The main goal was to achieve complete independence from British rule. Gandhi introduced the philosophy of non-violence (Satyagraha) as the core of the movement.
Key Features: Gandhi’s Movements & India’s Independence

• The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934), and Quit India Movement (1942) were major campaigns.
• Gandhi’s emphasis on non-violent resistance and self-sufficiency in the form of Khadi (handspun cloth) became symbols of the movement.
• The Quit India Movement marked a significant turning point, leading to mass arrests and intensified pressure on the British.
• Post-World War II negotiations with the British resulted in India gaining independence on August 15, 1947.

Indian National Movement List: Indian National Movement (1857-1947)

Here’s a list of some key events and movements within the Indian National Movement:

Indian National Movement: Struggle for Independence (1857-1947)

The Indian National Movement was a historic struggle against British colonial rule in India. It spanned several decades, from the late 19th century to 1947, when India finally gained independence. Here is a brief overview of the Indian National Movement:

Revolt of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny): End of East India Company Rule, British Crown Ascendancy

• Year: 1857
• Objective: Against British East India Company rule.
• Key Figures: Nana Saheb, Rani Laxmi Bai, Bahadur Shah Zafar.
• Outcome: End of East India Company rule, beginning of direct British Crown rule.

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Partition of Bengal: Sparking Swadeshi Movement and Nationalism

• Year: 1905
• Objective: Protest against the partition of Bengal.
• Impact: Birth of the Swadeshi Movement, nationalism.

Swadeshi Movement: Indian Industries, Fostering Nationalism

• Year: 1905
• Objective: Boycott of British goods, promotion of Indian-made products.
• Key Figures: Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Outcome: Revival of Indian cottage industries, rise of Nationalism.

Formation of All India Muslim League: Advocating Muslim Political Rights

• Year: 1906
• Objective: To represent Indian Muslims’ political rights.
• Key Figures: Agha Khan, Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
• Outcome: Advocacy for separate electorates for Muslims.

Surat Split: Divergence in Indian National Congress

• Year: 1907
• Objective: Disagreements between Moderates and Extremists within the Indian National Congress.
• Outcome: Differentiation between Moderate and Extremist factions.

Minto-Morley Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909): Limited Indian Representation, Communal Shift

• Year: 1909
• Objective: Introduction of limited elected representation for Indians in legislative councils.
• Outcome: Communal representation for Muslims, separate electorates.

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Ghadar Party Movement: Anti-Colonial Overthrow Efforts

• Year: 1913
• Objective: Overthrow of British colonial rule.
• Key Figures: Lala Har Dayal, Bhagwan Singh, Taraknath Das.
• Outcome: Propaganda against British rule through the “Ghadar” newspaper.

Komagata Maru Incident: Immigration Strife in Canada

• Year: 1914
  Objective: Immigration of Indians to Canada.
  Outcome: Return of the ship to India, tension between Indians and Canadians.

Home Rule Movement: Indian Quest for Self-Governance

• Year: 1916-1918
• Objective: Demand for self-governance within the British Empire.
• Key Figures: Annie Besant, Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• Outcome: Unification of Moderate and Extremist factions within the Congress.

Champaran Satyagraha: Gandhi’s Stand for Agrarian Justice

• Year: 1917
• Objective: Protest against forced indigo cultivation.
• Key Figure: Mahatma Gandhi.
• Outcome: Champaran Agrarian Act 1918.

Kheda Satyagraha: Gandhi’s Tax Protest and Triumph

• Year: 1918
• Objective: Protest against unfair taxation during a famine.
• Key Figure: Mahatma Gandhi.
• Outcome: Suspension of tax for two years.

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Rowlatt Act: Prelude to Jallianwala Bagh

• Year: 1919
• Objective: To suppress political agitation.
• Outcome: Protests and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: Outcry and Unrest

• Year: 1919
• Objective: Protest against Rowlatt Act.
• Outcome: Public outrage, widespread unrest.

Non-Cooperation Movement: Gandhi’s Peaceful Revolt

• Year: 1920-1922
• Objective: Non-violent resistance, non-cooperation with British rule.
• Key Figures: Mahatma Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel.
• Outcome: Increased political awareness, unity among Indians.

Moplah Rebellion: Struggle and Reform in 1921

• Year: 1921
• Objective: Rebellion against landlords and British rule.
• Outcome: Post-rebellion Muslim reform movement.

Bardoli Satyagraha: Patel’s Tax Protest Triumph

• Year: 1928
• Objective: Protest against unfair taxes.
• Key Figure: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Outcome: Return of seized land, reduced tax.

Simon Commission: Indian Representation Absence

• Year: 1927
• Objective: Review of the Indian constitutional system.
• Outcome: Opposition due to the absence of Indian representation.

Civil Disobedience Movement: Salt Tax Protest:

• Year: 1930-1934
• Objective: Protest against salt tax and other British policies.
• Key Figures: Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari.
• Outcome: Raised political awareness, led to negotiations.

Government of India Act, 1935: Autonomy and Federalism for India’s Governance

• Year: 1935
• Objective: Introduced provincial autonomy and federal structure.
• Outcome: Paved the way for a more representative government.

Quit India Movement: indians Demand Freedom, Facing Colonial Suppression

• Year: 1942
• Objective: Demanding an end to British colonial rule.
• Key Figure: Mahatma Gandhi
• Outcome: Suppression of the movement, increased nationalist sentiment.

Cabinet Mission Plan: India’s Path to Independence

• Year: 1946
• Objective: Framework for India’s independence and formation of constituent assembly.
• Outcome: Preparations for India’s transition to independence.

Partition of India (1947): Birth of Nations

• Year: 1947
• Objective: Division of British India into India and Pakistan.
• Outcome: Independence and the creation of two separate nations.

Indian National Movement Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

The Moderate Phase of the Indian National Movement, spanning from 1885 to 1905, was characterized by a more cautious and gradual approach to achieving political reforms and greater participation in the British colonial administration. Here are key details about this phase:

Leadership: Naoroji, Gokhale, and More

Prominent leaders during this phase included Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (the first president of the Indian National Congress), Dinshaw Wacha, and others.

Objectives: Congress’ Early Goals for India

The primary objective was to attain Dominion Status for India within the British Empire. Dominion Status would grant India a significant degree of self-governance while remaining a part of the British Commonwealth.

Key Features: Constitutional Reform and Economic Independence

• The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885, marking the formal beginning of organized political opposition to British rule.
• Moderate leaders believed in using constitutional means, petitions, and negotiations to achieve political reforms. They aimed to work within the existing system to secure greater Indian representation in government and civil service.
• The movement focused on addressing economic issues, social reforms, and educational advancement.
• Dadabhai Naoroji’s “Drain Theory” highlighted the economic exploitation of India by the British, emphasizing the need for economic self-sufficiency.

Key Events: Petitions, Cooperation, and Education

• Moderates presented demands for political reforms through memoranda and petitions to the British authorities. One notable petition was the “Ilbert Bill” protest in 1883 against racial discrimination in the judiciary.
• Efforts were made to build a bridge of understanding and cooperation with the British, seeking to persuade them to enact reforms voluntarily.
• The INC’s early sessions focused on discussing issues such as civil rights, local self-government, and economic policies.
• Moderates also stressed the importance of Western education and the English language as tools for social and political progress.

Outcome: Foundations Laid, Reforms Awaited

• While the Moderate Phase laid the foundation for the Indian National Movement, it did not achieve the desired political reforms during this period.
• The movement’s moderate approach faced limitations, as the British government was often unresponsive to their demands.
• The frustration with the lack of progress eventually led to the emergence of more radical and assertive approaches in the Extremist Phase of the Indian National Movement.

The Moderate Phase played a vital role in bringing Indian political issues to the forefront and in nurturing a sense of political awareness and unity among Indians. It set the stage for the more assertive and radical phases of the movement that followed.

Important Moderate Personalities: Architects of Political Reform

The Moderate Phase of the Indian National Movement (1885-1905) was characterized by leaders who adopted a moderate approach to achieve political reforms and gain greater participation for Indians within the British colonial framework. Some important moderate personalities during this period included:

• Dadabhai Naoroji: Often referred to as the “Grand Old Man of India,” Dadabhai Naoroji was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress (INC). He was the first Indian to be elected to the British Parliament and played a crucial role in articulating economic and political grievances of Indians under British rule. He popularized the concept of the “Drain of Wealth” from India to Britain.
• Dinshaw Wacha: Dinshaw Wacha was a prominent moderate leader who served as the President of the INC in 1901. He advocated for constitutional methods and believed in the power of petitions and negotiations with the British authorities.
• William Wedderburn: William Wedderburn was an Englishman who actively supported the Indian National Congress. He was one of the few British individuals who sympathized with the Indian cause for self-governance.
• George Yule: George Yule was an influential figure who contributed to the early growth of the INC. He played a key role in establishing a constructive dialogue between Indian leaders and the British government.
• Sir Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar: A prominent lawyer and social reformer, Chandavarkar was a moderate leader who believed in the importance of constitutional agitation. He was one of the founding members of the INC and actively worked for Indian political representation.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade: Mahadev Govind Ranade was a social reformer, scholar, and moderate leader. He advocated for social and economic reforms in addition to political reforms. He founded the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, which played a crucial role in the national movement.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gokhale was a highly respected moderate leader who emphasized the importance of education and moral values in achieving political reforms. He believed in “Sarvajanikarana” or the public’s participation in government.

Indian National Movement Extremist Phase (1905-1916)

The Extremist Phase of the Indian National Movement, spanning from 1905 to 1916, was characterized by a more assertive and radical approach to achieving political reforms and self-governance. Here are key details about this phase:

Leadership: Vanguard of Change

Prominent leaders during this phase included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh, and others. They were often referred to as the “Extremists.”

Objectives: Extremists’ Call for Self-Governance

The primary objective shifted from seeking Dominion Status within the British Empire to demanding Swaraj or complete self-government for India. Extremist leaders believed in more direct action against British rule.

Key Features: Defying Partition, Asserting Swaraj

• The phase began with the vehement protest against the partition of Bengal by the British in 1905, which was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and rule.
• Extremist leaders encouraged the use of non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and Swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods) as means of protest against British policies.
• There was an emphasis on cultural pride and the promotion of indigenous Indian culture as a means of asserting national identity.
• Tilak’s call for “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it” became a rallying cry for the movement.

Key Events: Bengal Partition Sparks Swadeshi and Revolt

• The partition of Bengal in 1905 led to mass protests, boycotts, and demonstrations, with leaders like Tilak advocating for strong opposition.
• The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908) called for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made products.
• The Extremists organized public rallies, strikes, and protests, often resulting in clashes with the British authorities.
• The revolutionary movement, characterized by secret societies and armed resistance, gained momentum during this phase.

Outcome: Aggression, Repression, and National Mobilization

• The Extremist Phase saw a more aggressive and assertive approach that resonated with the masses, leading to increased participation in the freedom struggle.
• It marked a shift from petitions and negotiations to direct confrontation with British rule.
• While the Extremist Phase raised nationalist fervor and mobilized the masses, it also led to increased repression by the British, with many leaders being imprisoned or exiled.
• The Extremist Phase of the Indian National Movement played a pivotal role in galvanizing public support and laying the groundwork for the subsequent Gandhian Phase, which further emphasized non-violent civil disobedience as a means of achieving independence.

Causes of Indian National Movement: Influences and Catalysts

The rise of Indian nationalism was a gradual process influenced by various interconnected factors. The following are the causes and circumstances that contributed to the growth of the Indian national movement:

1. Socio-Religious Reforms: In the 19th century, a wave of socio-religious reform movements swept across India. Visionaries like Jyotiba Phule, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar played pivotal roles in these movements, tirelessly working to eradicate religious and social injustices. These reformers championed causes such as the abolition of Sati and the promotion of women’s education, fostering a sense of social justice and equality.
2. Rise in Western Education: The introduction of Western education, particularly with Lord Macaulay’s “Minute on Indian Education” in 1835, aimed to create an educated class of Indians loyal to British rule. However, Indians harnessed the power of English education to unite various regions and disseminate ideas of freedom, democracy, and equality that they encountered through exposure to Western thinkers and philosophers.
3. Revival of Vernacular Languages: Alongside the rise of English education, Indians recognized the significance of their native languages. Vernacular languages gained popularity, and prominent writers began expressing nationalist ideas in these languages. This ensured that the ideals of freedom and liberty reached a broader audience in a language they understood, fostering unity.
4. Effects of British Economic Policies: British economic policies during the colonial era had devastating consequences for India, particularly for peasants and farmers. These policies led to widespread poverty, heavy debts, and economic hardships. The suffering of the masses due to British economic exploitation fueled resentment and contributed to the mobilization of nationalist sentiments.
5. Aftermath of the Revolt of 1857: The Revolt of 1857, often referred to as the First War of Independence, was a significant uprising against British rule. Despite its brutal suppression by the British, the revolt left a lasting impact. It deepened the sense of resentment among Indians and heightened racial tensions between the Indian populace and the British colonial rulers. The events of 1857 served as a catalyst for the subsequent rise of nationalism in India.

Factors Responsible for Indian National Movement: Factors Shaping India’s Freedom Struggle

The Indian National Movement, a significant struggle for India’s independence from British colonial rule, was shaped by a multitude of complex factors. These factors contributed to the emergence and evolution of the movement over several decades. Here are the key factors responsible for the Indian National Movement:

1. Political Unity in the Country: Under British rule, most parts of India were brought under a single administrative and political system. While this centralized control served British interests, it also fostered a sense of unity and oneness among different regions of India, contributing to the nationalistic sentiment.
2. Rise in the Network of Transport: The British initially developed roads and railways in India to facilitate the transportation of raw materials. However, this infrastructure inadvertently facilitated the movement of people and ideas. Indians who preached the Indian National Movement could travel more easily from one region to another, spreading the message of freedom.
3. Increased Communication: The British built an extensive telegraph and postal network in India to serve their administrative needs. Indians leveraged this communication infrastructure to disseminate information about the freedom struggle, share news of events, and connect with like-minded individuals and groups across the country.
4. Growth of the Modern Press: The expansion of the modern press, both in English and regional languages, played a pivotal role in the success of the Indian National Movement. Newspapers, pamphlets, posters, and publications were widely distributed to propagate the idea of freedom from British rule and educate the masses.
5. Policies of Lord Lytton: Lord Lytton’s policies, such as the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 and the Arms Act of 1878, were oppressive and curtailed freedom of expression and individual rights. These policies fueled mass anger and resentment against British rule, leading to increased support for the Indian National Movement.
6. Racist Treatment: British colonial authorities displayed racism and discrimination towards Indians, treating them as inferiors. The Ilbert Bill controversy, which initially sought to maintain British legal privileges, highlighted the unequal treatment Indians faced solely based on race, further galvanizing nationalist sentiments.
7. Inspiration from Foreign National Movements: Indians drew inspiration from nationalist struggles occurring in foreign countries, such as the French Revolution and the American Civil War. These events introduced new ideals of freedom, equality, and democracy, influencing the Indian National Movement.
8. Economic Exploitation: The economic policies of the British Raj, which led to the exploitation of Indian resources and impoverishment of the masses, fueled resentment and a desire for economic independence. This economic hardship contributed to the mobilization of nationalist sentiments.

Important Centers of Indian National Movement: Pivotal Centers of India’s Freedom Movement

The Indian National Movement had several important centers and cities where significant events, meetings, and activities took place. These centers played pivotal roles in the struggle for India’s independence. Here are some of the important centers of the Indian National Movement:

• Bombay (Mumbai): Bombay was a hub of nationalist activities and home to prominent leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. It hosted the Indian National Congress sessions in 1885, 1904, and 1915.
• Calcutta (Kolkata): Calcutta was another major center of nationalist activities and a stronghold of the Indian National Congress. The city hosted the first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal were active in Calcutta.
• Delhi: Delhi played a significant role in the Indian National Movement. The city saw the coronation of King George V in 1911, which led to the annulment of the partition of Bengal. Delhi also became the capital of India in 1912, a move that symbolized British intentions to control India.
• Ahmedabad: Mahatma Gandhi established Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, which served as a base for many of his non-violent movements, including the Salt Satyagraha and the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Lucknow: Lucknow was a center of political activities and home to leaders like Motilal Nehru and Jawaharlal Nehru. It hosted the Congress session in 1916.
• Nagpur: Nagpur witnessed the historic Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress in 1920, during which the Non-Cooperation Movement was launched.
• Lahore: Lahore was an important center of political and cultural activities. The city hosted several Congress sessions, including the famous Lahore session of 1929 when the demand for complete independence (Purna Swaraj) was made.
• Champaran: Champaran in Bihar was the site of Mahatma Gandhi’s first major campaign in India, the Champaran Satyagraha, in 1917. It focused on the issues faced by indigo farmers.
• Amritsar: Amritsar is known for the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919, where British troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering of Indians, leading to widespread outrage.
• Dandi: Dandi in Gujarat was the endpoint of the Salt March led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930. This iconic march protested against the British monopoly on salt production and distribution.
• Jhansi: Jhansi played a role in the revolt of 1857, with Rani Laxmi Bai leading her troops in resisting British forces.
• Indian National Movement Short Notes: Snapshot of Indian National Movement

Here’s a concise table summarizing key aspects of the Indian National Movement:

Indian National Movement UPSC: India’s Struggle for Independence

Studying the Indian National Movement for UPSC is very important when preparing for the Civil Services Examination (CSE). In recent years, the significance of this topic has grown, leading to an increase in the number of questions in both the Prelims and Mains. The Indian National Movement is an integral part of the Modern History section in the UPSC syllabus. To aid your preparation, here are some sample questions from the CSE General Studies Paper 1 on the History of India and the Indian National Movement:

1. Discuss the significance of the Champaran Satyagraha in the context of the Indian National Movement.
2. How did the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre impact the course of the Indian National Movement? Explain.
3. Analyze the contributions of Mahatma Gandhi to the Non-Cooperation Movement and its outcomes.
4. What were the main objectives of the Swadeshi Movement, and how did it shape the nationalist sentiment in India?
5. Explain the impact of the Partition of Bengal on the Indian National Movement and the subsequent developments.
6. Discuss the role of women in the Indian National Movement with reference to prominent leaders like Sarojini Naidu and Annie Besant.
7. How did the Simon Commission become a turning point in India’s struggle for independence? Analyze its consequences.
8. Evaluate the significance of the Dandi March in the Civil Disobedience Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.
9. Elaborate on the factors that led to the success of the Quit India Movement of 1942 as a mass uprising against British rule.
10. Describe the role of revolutionary movements and leaders like Bhagat Singh and Subhas Chandra Bose in the Indian National Movement.

Indian National Movement FAQs

1. What was the Indian National Movement?

The Indian National Movement was a mass struggle for India’s independence from British colonial rule that took place from the late 19th century to 1947.

2. Who were the prominent leaders of the Indian National Movement?

Prominent leaders include Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Annie Besant, and many others.

3. What were the main phases of the Indian National Movement?

The movement is divided into three phases: the Moderate Phase (1885-1905), the Extremist Phase (1905-1919), and the Gandhian Phase (1919-1947).

4. What were the key events and movements within the Indian National Movement?

Important events include the Swadeshi Movement, Quit India Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, Dandi March, and many others.

5. What role did Mahatma Gandhi play in the Indian National Movement?

Gandhi was a prominent leader who advocated non-violent civil disobedience and played a central role in the movement, leading various campaigns and movements.

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