PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

• President: Nominal executive (de jure), Head of State

• PM: Real executive (de facto), Head of Government.

• Council of Minister headed by PM to aid & advice President.

• Advice is binding on President (42^nd & 44^th amendment)

• Both head of State & Head of Government

• Political party with majority seats in Lok Sabha forms government.
• Leader of that party is appointed as PM by the President and Ministers are appointed by President on the advice of PM.
• If no single party secures majority, President invites coalition of party.

• President is elected by electoral college for a fixed term of four years.
• President cannot be removed by the Congress except by impeachment for a grave unconstitutional act.

• Bedrock of parliamentary govt.
• Article 75: CoM is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
• Lok Sabha can remove CoM by passing no confidence motion.

• President and his secretaries are not responsible to the Congress.

• Single party majority: members of CoM from same political party à same ideology
• Coalition govt: CoM bound by consensus

• Cabinet: Non-elected advisory body.
• Selected & appointed by the President.
• Responsible only to him.
• Removed by him.

• Ministers are members of both the legislature and executive.
• Minister who is not a member of the parliament for six consecutive months ceases to be a minister.

• President and his secretaries are not members of Congress nor do they attend the sessions.
• There is complete separation of power between legislature and executive.

• Leader of CoM
• Leader of parliament
• Leader of party in power

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• President can dissolve Lok Sabha before the expiry of term on the recommendation of PM.

• The President cannot dissolve the House of Representatives (Lower House of Congress)

• Ministers follow principle of secrecy about their proceedings, policies & decisions.
• Ministers take oath of secrecy administered by President.

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• Executive à part of legislature à cooperation and interdependence among executive and legislature.
• Less dispute and conflict between two organs.

• Govt may lose its majority due to no confidence motion, political defection or breakdown of coalition.

• Ministers are responsible to the Parliament for their acts.
• Parliament’s control over executive: question hour, discussions, debates, adjournment motion, no confidence motion.

• Change in government brings change in policies.
• This is roadblock in policy formulation & implementation in long term.

• Executive authority is not vested in single person but in CoM.
• Prevents dictatorship of executive.

• Ruling party with absolute majority->cabinet all powerful.
• All policies are decided by cabinet.

• Opposition party provides ready alternative govt if ruling party loses majority.

• CoM and Cabinet are part of legislature.
• Cabinet: leader of legislature and executive.

• CoM provides representation to all sections & regions in the government.

• Ministers are not experts in their fields->less administrative efficiency.
• Ministers can only be from parliament. PM has no choice to select outside experts.