Context

For the first time, members of the Shompen tribe, one of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India took part in the election process by casting their votes in the Andaman and Nicobar Lok Sabha constituency.

• According to the provisional figures made available, the voter turnout was 63.99%. 
  • However, in 2019, the voter turnout was 65.09%

About Shompen Tribe

• Shompen Tribe Belongs to: These are the indigenous people of the interior of Great Nicobar Island. 
  • They are designated as a PVTG within the list of Scheduled Tribes.
• Characteristics:
  • Shompen Tribe are one of the most isolated tribes.
  • They are semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers.
    • Their main sources of livelihood are hunting, gathering, fishing, and a little bit of horticultural activities in a rudimentary form.
• Population: The estimated population of Shompen Tribe was 229 as per the 2011 Census data.
• Language Known: They speak their own language, which has many dialects. Members of one band do not understand the dialect of the other.
• Social structure: The family is controlled by the eldest male member, who controls all activities of the women and kids.
• • Monogamy is the general rule, although polygamy is allowed too.
• Others: 
  • The Shompen habitat is also an important biological hotspot and there are two National Parks and one Biosphere Reserve namely:
    • Campbell Bay National Park
    • Galathea National Park and
    • Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

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About Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

• About: These groups are among the most vulnerable sections of India as they are few in numbers.
  • 75 such groups have been identified and categorised as PVTGs.
    • Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha.
• Characteristics: There are certain tribal communities who have:
  • Declining or stagnant population
  • Low level of literacy
  • Pre-agricultural level of technology
  • Economically backward
• Others: In 1973, the Dhebar Commission created Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, which are less developed among the tribal groups. 
  • In 2006, the Government of India renamed the PTGs as PVTGs.

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Context

Recently, fossils were discovered of one of the largest snakes that ever existed in Kutch, Gujarat by IIT Roorkee researchers.  

Snake Fossil Found In Gujarat – IIT Roorkee Study

• Named: Vasuki Indicus
• The fossilized Remains:  A  27 pieces of a “partial,  well preserved” vertebral column were found in Gujarat’s Panandhro Lignite Mine in Kutch.
• Published in: The discovery was published in the peer-reviewed journal, Nature Scientific Reports.
• Size: The reptile could have been anywhere between 10 metres and 15 metres long, or as big as a modern-day school bus.
  • Currently, The green anaconda are among the largest snake species, with females growing more than seven metres long. 
• Period: The snake likely lived 47 million years ago during a period called the Middle Eocene.
  • The reptile existed at a time when Africa, India and South America were one, conjoined landmass.

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• Family: It belonged to the now-extinct Madtsoiidae snake family and  represents a unique lineage from India
  • Madtsoiidae Family: They  are Gondwanan terrestrial snakes that lived between the Upper Cretaceous (100.5 million to 66 million years ago) and the Late Pleistocene (0.126 million years ago to 0.012 million years ago).
• Feature:
  • Built: Vasuki Indicus was likely as big as Titanoboa ( The longest snake ever recorded) and has a broad and cylindrical body, hinting at a robust and powerful build.
  • Prey: Vasuki Indicus killed its prey by ambushing and  suffocation  like the present-day pythons and anaconda.
  • Temperature: Vasuki Indicus favours Warm Tropical temperatures at roughly 28 °C
  • Origin: It represents a lineage of large madtsoiids that likely originated in the Indian subcontinent before subsequently moving to Africa through southern Eurasia during the Eocene.
• Significance of the discovery:
  • Understanding of Snake Origins and Evolution: It has important implications for madtsoiid biogeography in the context of Gondwanan inter-continental dispersal and the evolution of large body sizes possibly driven by high temperatures in the Middle Eocene tropical zones.
  • Cultural: The name has cultural resemblance as Vasuki refers to the mythical snake often depicted around the neck of the Hindu god Shiva.
  • Insight into the Geological and environmental conditions: The presence of Vasuki Indicus (aquatic Predator) indicates the climate and ecological condition of the time ie. once a lush, swampy region.
  • Renewed Focus on Fossils preservation and Research: It underscores the importance of preserving our natural history and highlights the role of research in unveiling the mysteries of our past.

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Context

A team of archaeologists claimed to have discovered a unique Iron Age megalithic site at Ooragutta near Bandala village in SS Tadvai mandal of Mulugu district, Telangana.

• Site Discovery: The site was discovered by a team comprising K.P. Rao, history professor of the University of Hyderabad, and Ch Praveen Raju, research scholar from Yogi Vemana University, Andhra Pradesh.

Archaeological Sites Discovered in Telangana

• Dolmenoid Cists Shaped by Cap-Stones: The side slabs are arranged with slabs following the shape of the cap-stone. Hence, each ‘dolmenoid cist’ has a unique shape as dictated by the cap-stone. 
  • In Europe, such monuments are known as Passage Chambers. 
  • Unique Feature: 
    • This site has new types of monuments, which have not come to light so far anywhere in other regions of India. 
    • Usually in this region, a type of megalithic monument known as ‘Dolmenoid Cists’ is found. 
    • Most of the monuments in this region have squarish or rectangular shapes.
• Two New Rock Art Sites: The team also discovered two new rock art sites at Damaratogu in Gundala mandal of Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
  • One of the sites, known as ‘Devarlabanda Mula’, has only depictions of animals and no humans. 
  • Since no weapons or domestic animals are shown, it is believed that the paintings may go back to the mesolithic age, anywhere between 8000 – 3000 BCE.

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Iron Age

• Chronology of the Iron Age in Peninsular India: In peninsular India, the Iron Age roughly covers the period from 1000 BC to 100 A.D. 
  • This is also a period for which textual evidence is available. Hence, scholars differ in their approach by working only with the archaeological evidence or incorporating the available textual evidence. 
• Prominence of Megaliths: In peninsular India, the Iron Age primarily encompasses megalithic structures, often linked with habitation sites, within the region.
• Iron Age in North India: It is archaeologically represented by assemblages that mainly contain particular pottery types such as Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). 

About Megaliths

• About: In prehistoric art, a megalith is a large, often undressed stone that has been used in the construction of various types of Neolithic, Chalcolithic or Bronze Age monuments, during the period 4500-1000 BCE. 
• Megalithic Monuments: The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500 BC – 200 AD).
  • Though megalithic sites are found all across India,  they are concentrated mostly in peninsular India. 

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Context

Recently, Slovenia & Sweden became the 39th & 38th Countries to sign Artemis Accords respectively.

About Artemis Accords

• Artemis Accords is a US-led alliance seeking to facilitate international collaboration in planetary exploration and research.
  • It relates to activities in orbit, on the surface, and in the subsurface of the moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids.
  • It also covers the stable orbital points known as the Lagrangian points for the Earth-moon system). 
• Artemis Accords Established by: It was launched on October 13, 2020 with Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States.
• Artemis Accords Members: 
  • The Accords have been signed by 39 countries till now. 
  • On June 21,2023 India became the 27th country to sign the Artemis Accords.
  • China and Russia are not part of this initiative.

Key Principles of Artemis Accords

These  are a non-binding set of principles designed to guide civil space exploration and use in the 21st century.

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• To affirm the countries comply with 
  • 1967’s Outer Space Treaty,

• • Rescue and Return Agreement 1968 (which emphasizes the responsibility of nations to safely return astronauts),
  • 1972’s Liability Convention and 
  • 1975’s Registration Convention.
• Peaceful Exploration of Space: All activities must be conducted peacefully in line with international law. 
• Transparency: Signatories must be transparent about their activities and share scientific information openly. 
• Interoperability: Nations should develop systems that can work together to enhance safety and sustainability. 
• Emergency Assistance: Commitment to assisting personnel in distress in outer space. 
• Registration of Space Objects: Agreement on registering relevant space objects. 
• Preserving Heritage: Commitment to preserving historic sites and artifacts in space. 
• Space Resources: Affirmation of the importance of extracting and utilizing space resources, with transparency to the international community. 
• Deconfliction of Activities: Prevention of harmful interference and establishment of safety zones. 
• Orbital Debris Management: Planning for the safe disposal of debris and limiting the generation of new debris.

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Context

The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) has released the National Curriculum for Early Childhood Care and Education 2024 titled ‘Aadharshila’.

Centre Releases Curriculum Framework for 3 to 6-Year-Olds

• India has 14 lakh anganwadis spread across villages, serving as key centers for health and nutrition support for pregnant mothers and children.
• The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD), in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, aims to transform these anganwadis into preschools.
• They envision anganwadis to provide both  health services and basic education to children.
  • This shift aims to strengthen children’s foundational literacy and numeracy skills from an early age.

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About Aadharshila

• Aadharshila curriculum is released by the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD).
• This curriculum aligns with the National Education Policy 2020 and the National Curriculum Framework.
• Objective: It aims to boost basic reading and math skills for three to six-year-old children in anganwadis.
• It is a detailed 48-week curriculum of learning over three years.
• The framework covers various domains, including cognitive, physical, social, and emotional development.

Curriculum Framework Development By:

• The framework is crafted by an internal committee representing various government departments, educational institutions, and civil society organizations.

Key Components of Aadharshila

• Weekly Play Calendar: A Structured Approach

  • Four Weeks: The curriculum includes a weekly plan for play activities, starting with four weeks focused on academic activities to help children transition from home to the anganwadi center.
  • 36 Weeks: The next 36 weeks prioritize exploration and free play, along with conversations, creative activities like storytelling and art, and reflecting on experiences.
    • Storytelling themes cover important lessons like conflict resolution, responsibility, and cooperation.

• Learning Content: 

  • Children learn about colors, shapes, numbers, senses, body parts, family dynamics, and social interactions.
  • They practice listening, following instructions, basic counting, and recognizing sounds.
  • Themes also include seasonal changes, festivals, and food.

• Recap and Reinforcement: 

  • Revision of  previous lesson: The final eight weeks focus on revisiting previous lessons through worksheets and observing children’s progress.
  • Tailored age group Activities:  Activities and schedules are tailored to different age groups, with detailed instructions, materials lists, and goals to guide teachers.

• Promoting Development: Building Essential Skills:

  • The curriculum aids in developing listening skills, vocabulary, imagination, storytelling, following directions, creativity, and social skills.
  • It nurtures self-expression and self-esteem, laying a strong foundation for transitioning to Grade 1.

National Framework for Preschool Education: Empowering States

• Supporting State Solutions:

  • The national framework for children aged three to six will guide states in creating their own suitable curriculums.
  • This approach addresses later school challenges by offering tailored solutions.

• Importance of Structured Guidance:

  • Before, states without a curriculum treated preschool as an extension of primary education, mainly focused on reading and writing.

• • It provides specific guidance on activities and organization to ensure effective preschool learning.

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• Integration with Training Programs:

  • The ‘Poshan Bhi, Padhai Bhi’ scheme initiated training for anganwadi workers in early childhood education last year.
  • Now, this curriculum will be integrated into ongoing training sessions, helping anganwadi workers transition into preschool instructors.
    • Currently, 6,758 state-level master trainers from 329 districts across 32 states have undergone training under the ‘Poshan Bhi, Padhai Bhi’ program.

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Context

The National Framework of Early Childhood Stimulation 2024 has introduced an activity-based curriculum for parents, anganwadis (childcare centers) and ASHA workers in India. 

• This curriculum is titled “Navchetana,”.
  • It  emphasizes that a child’s learning journey begins from birth and extends up to the age of three. 

About Navchetana

• This curriculum follows National Education Policy 2020.
• It provides detailed information on the importance of brain development  during the crucial first three years, when 75% of the brain develops.
• It provides month-by-month activities to be conducted by parents, anganwadi staff, and ASHA workers  and ensures holistic development of children  through purposeful activities.  
  • The curriculum involves a range of activities, including:
    • Talking: Encouraging communication with children.
    • Playing: Engaging children in play-based learning.
    • Moving: Promoting physical activity.
    • Listening to Music and Sounds: Enhancing auditory perception.
    • Sensory Stimulation: Focusing on sight and touch.
• Objective:  It aims to stimulate growth in language, literacy, numeracy, and sensory skills of new child. 
• Training for Staff: Over 14 lakh, anganwadi staff will be given training on implementing the curriculum.
• Framework Development:
  • An internal committee, comprising representatives from various ministries and organizations, finalized the framework.
  • Organizations are the Ministry of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,Institute of Home Economics, Delhi University, etc.
• Instructions for caregivers and frontline workers
  • Parents and caregivers play a vital role in implementing the curriculum. Thus, Specific instructions guide caregivers in:
    • Capturing the Child’s Attention
    • Communicating with the Child
    • Introducing Age-Appropriate Play Activities
    • Following the Child’s Lead
    • Providing Positive Reinforcement

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Developmental Activities for Children

• Infancy (0-12 months):

  • It promotes the use of everyday items like cups, bottles, and fabric remnants.
  • Activities focus on basic skills like reaching for objects, making sounds by imitating, and manipulating objects such as putting objects in and out of a jar and removing knots in a handkerchief in the first year.

• Toddlerhood (12-24 months):

  • As children grow, they would be encouraged to feed themselves and explore their surroundings.
    • They can engage in the kitchen, play with dough, and see themselves in a mirror.
  • At around 18 months, children would be  encouraged to start scribbling with crayons, fostering early creativity.

• Preschool Years (24-36 months):

  • By 24 months, activities will focus on teaching children to sort and match items like shoes.
  • At age three, children are introduced to riding a cycle, practicing saying their names, and identifying colors, laying the groundwork for further cognitive and motor skill development.

Benefits of the Activity-Based Curriculum

The activity-based curriculum outlined in the National Framework of Early Childhood Stimulation 2024 offers several benefits:

• Promotes Early Brain Development: The curriculum emphasizes activities during the crucial first three years, when 75% of the brain develops.
• Supports Multiple Developmental Areas: Activities target various skills like language, literacy, numeracy, and social interaction.
• Uses Readily Available Materials: Activities mentioned in the framework uses simple household objects which  make it accessible and affordable.
• Identifies Developmental Delays: By following the age-appropriate activities, potential delays can be recognized and addressed.

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Context

India recently delivered the first batch of BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles to the Philippines, making it the first export order for the supersonic cruise missile.

India sends first batch of BrahMos to Philippines

• Philippines is acquiring the systems under the Horizon 2 of the Revised Armed Forces of the Philippines Modernization Programme.
• It is a $375-million deal with India to deliver three batteries of shore-based, anti-ship variants of the BrahMos, becoming the first export customer for the joint venture missile between India and Russia.

About BrahMos

• Introduction: BrahMos is a joint venture between DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya and the missile derives its name from Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.

• Launch Capability: The missile is capable of being launched from land, sea, sub-sea and air against surface and sea-based targets and has been long inducted by the Indian armed forces.
• Range: The range of the missile was originally capped at 290 km as per obligations of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). 
  • Following India’s entry into the MTCR in 2016, the range has been extended to 450km and work is on to extend it to 600 km and beyond.

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• Technology: BRAHMOS is a Two-Stage Missile with the first stage being solid-propellant booster engine and the second stage being liquid ramjet.
  • The missile has stealth technology and guidance system with advanced embedded software that provides the missile with special features.
• Speed: Up to 3 Mach speed in cruise phase. 
• Altitude: Cruising up to 15 km and Terminal altitude is as low as 10 meters.
• Warhead Capacity: It carries a conventional warhead weighing 200 to 300 kgs.

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Context

The Supreme Court (SC) asserted in a recent judgment that forests in India are a national asset and a major contributor to the nation’s financial wealth.

Supreme Court Ruling in Telangana Forest Land Dispute

• Pronouncement on Forest Land Dispute in Telangana: The SC bench pronounced the judgment based on an appeal filed by the State of Telangana challenging a High Court decision that had granted forest land to a private individual. 
• Exacerbation of Land Dispute through Conflicting Affidavits: The forest authorities of the State, entrusted with the task of safeguarding the forest presented contradictory affidavits in court regarding the nature of the disputed land. 
• Imposition of Penalty: The apex court imposed a penalty of ₹5 lakh each on both the State government and the private individuals involved. 
  • Additionally, the State was directed to initiate an investigation against its own forest officials.
• Criticism of FCAA: The judgment has come at a time when the Forest Conservation (Amendment) Act of 2023 or the FCAA has attracted widespread criticism. 
  • The FCAA is accused of giving a free hand to States to regularise encroachments in protected forests and determine diversions of forestlands. 
  • The Act has been criticised for paving the way for the commercial exploitation of forests, besides exempting infrastructural projects from environmental clearance.

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Key Highlights of the Supreme Court Judgement

• Carbon Credit as Financial Wealth of Nation: The SC bench highlighted that the  concepts of carbon credit and green accounting to evaluate a nation’s wealth had become a reality.
  • A country with excess forest cover may sell its excess carbon credit to the one in deficit. This underlines the significance of forests in contributing to the financial wealth of a country.
• Economic Value of India’s Forests as Carbon Sinks: India’s forests serve as a major sink of carbon dioxide (CO2). The conservative estimate values the mitigation at $5 per tonne of CO2 sequestered within our forests. 
  • This substantial carbon sink, estimated at approximately 24,000 metric tons of CO2, equates to a value of $120 billion or ₹6 lakh crores.
• Reference to a 2022-2023 report of the Reserve Bank of India: It highlighted the climate change and changing patterns of rainfall could cost the economy 2.8% of its GDP and depress the living standards of nearly half of its population by 2050.
  • India could lose anywhere around 3% to 10% of its GDP annually by year 2100 due to climate change.
• Broad Spectrum Impact: The report suggests the potential impact of climate change on society, leading to serious job losses in every sector. 
  • Therefore, the adverse effect will be on the future of the nation as a whole, as against an identifiable group.

What Is a Forest?

• According to the 1996 Godavarman Judgement:  “forest” would include: 
• Any land recorded as “forest” in government records; and 
• Any land that satisfied the dictionary definition of forest. (The Oxford Dictionary defines forest as “a large area covered with trees and undergrowth.”)

Status of Forests in India: 

• Forest Status in India:  India’s total forest cover underwent a net increase of 38,251 sq. km from 2001 to 2021. This increase was mainly in terms of open forest cover, where tree canopy density is 10-40%.
  • In the same period, forest cover with canopy density above 40% declined by 10,140 sq. km.

Significance of Forests

• Preserving Biodiversity: Forests are home to over 80% of terrestrial biodiversity, including 80% of amphibians, 75% of birds, and 68% of mammals, underscoring the importance of Forest in preserving diverse ecosystems.
• Carbon Sink: Forests are the largest storehouses of carbon after the oceans, as they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. 
• Water Cycle:  Forests play a critical role in the water cycle. They absorb rainwater and release it gradually, reducing the risk of floods and ensuring a constant supply of freshwater to rivers and streams. 
  • Forests also help recharge groundwater aquifers.
• Local Weather: Forests enhance local precipitation and improve water holding capacity of soil, regulate water cycle, maintain soil fertility by returning the nutrients to the soil through litter.
  • Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reduce intensity of flood and droughts.
• Ecosystem Services: Forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, including pollination of crops by forest-dwelling insects, regulation of microclimates, and habitat for pollinators and predators that benefit agriculture.
• Reservoirs of Genetic Diversity: Forests have great biological importance as reservoirs of genetic diversity apart from playing an important role in regulating earth’s climate.
• Crucial Buffer:  As the impacts of climate change become more frequent and severe, forests can provide a crucial buffer for our communities, emphasizing the importance of forest in climate resilience and disaster mitigation.

Threats to Forests in India

• Deforestation: Rampant unlawful logging sports for wooden, fuelwood, and other forest area merchandise threaten the integrity of India’s forests.
  • Encroachment of  Forest lands for agricultural enlargement, urbanisation, and commercial improvement exacerbates deforestation charges.
• Mining and Infrastructure Development:  Large-scale mining operations and infrastructure projects, together with roads, highways, and dams, frequently result in substantial forest area clearance and habitat destruction.
• Unsustainable Land Use Practices: Unsustainable land use practices, including transferring cultivation, monoculture plantations, and overgrazing, contribute to forest degradation and loss of biodiversity.
  • Fragmentation of forests because of land conversion results in habitat fragmentation, disrupting ecological processes and diminishing wildlife populations.
• Forest Fires: Forest fires pose an enormous hazard to forest ecosystems, particularly in the dry season. These fires now not only damage vegetation but also degrade soil quality and disrupt environmental dynamics.
• Changing Weather Patterns: Climate change-triggered phenomena, including erratic rainfall, extended droughts, and elevated frequency of intense weather activities, adversely affect  Forest fitness and resilience.
• Spread of Invasive Species: Changes in temperature and precipitation regimes facilitate the unfolding of invasive species, disrupting native ecosystems and outcompeting indigenous flora and fauna.
• Ineffectiveness of CAMPA: Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) does not adequately address ecosystem resilience. Biodiversity, which develops over long periods, is richest in older forests. 
  • Thus, replacing mature forests with new saplings adversely impacts biodiversity, climate regulation, carbon storage, and water resources.

India’s Forets Conservation Efforts

• Protected Areas in India:

  • National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries: India boasts an in-depth community of countrywide parks and flora and fauna sanctuaries geared toward keeping biodiversity and shielding endangered species.
    • Key examples encompass the Jim Corbett National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Sundarbans National Park.
  • Biosphere Reserves (BR):  They serve as crucial ecological hotspots, promoting conservation and sustainable improvement.

• Afforestation and Reforestation:

  • National Afforestation Programme (2002):  It aims at ecological restoration of degraded forests and to develop the forest resources with peoples’ participation, with focus on improvement in livelihoods of the forest-fringe communities, especially the poor.
  • Green India Mission (2014): It targets to increase forest and tree cover to mitigate climate change, enhance atmosphere services, and improve livelihoods.
    • It aims to increase forest/tree cover to the extent of 5 million hectares and improve quality of forest/tree cover on another 5 mha of forest/non-forest lands.
    • It also aims to increase forest based livelihood income of about 3 million households.
  • Joint Forest Management: Collaborative efforts among  Forest area departments and local communities through Joint Forest Management (JFM) results in afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management practices.

• Community-Based Total Conservation: 

  • Van Panchayats: Van Panchayats, or forest councils, empower nearby communities to participate in Forest  control, conservation, and recreation activities, fostering a feel of ownership and stewardship.

• • Tribal and Indigenous Forest Rights: Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 recognises tribal and indigenous forest rights and guarantees their involvement in forest conservation and management.

• Forests Policy and Legislation in India: 

  • Forest Conservation Act (1980): It regulates diversion of forest lands for non forest areas, making sure sustainable use and conservation of Forest resources.
  • Environment Protection Act 1986:  It is an umbrella legislation under which various rules and notifications have been framed and issued to take care of the different dimensions of Forest.
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act (WPA),1972: It provides protection to listed flora and fauna and establishes a network of ecologically important protected areas. 
    • It empowers the central and state governments to declare any area a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area. 

• • • The Act prohibits hunting of animals except with permission of an authorized officer when the animal has become dangerous to human life or property or so disabled or deceased as to be beyond recovery.
  • National Forest Policy (1988):  It offers a framework for sustainable forest control, biodiversity conservation, and network participation in forest area governance.
  • Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA):
    • Aim: It was established to compensate for forest loss due to development projects. 
      • Set up Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management & Planning Authority (CAMPA) at central & state level.
    • Fund Allocation: Establishes a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, & a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
    • The National Fund receives 10% & State Fund gets 90% of funds collected.
    • Fund Utilization: The funds are utilized for afforestation, regeneration of forest ecosystem, wildlife protection & infrastructure development.

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Way Forward

• Specified Definition of Forest: After assessing the estimates of land under forest a specified definition of forest should be made on the line of kyoto protocol definition which is currently being used for ISFR report.
• Revising Target Forest Cover: It is important to revise the target forest cover under the National Forest Policy, and promote the conservation of grasslands and other open ecosystems.
  • There is no scientific basis for the 33 percent forest cover target that India has set for itself to achieve. It was first proposed in the National Forest Policy 1952. 
• Restoring Native Vegetation: Restoring degraded land to its original state of grasslands or scrub vegetation with native trees will be more rewarding than creating monoculture plantations of teak, bamboo or eucalyptus.
  • As per a recent study in the Nature Geoscience journal, with increased tree plantations, there was a decline of almost 38 per cent in water availability in some river basins globally. 
  • This could affect the water security of millions of rural communities in the dry forest region of India.
• Environment & Social Impact Assessment: Element of Environment & social cost of Project should be in line with forest conservation.
  • Forest governance requires reassessment for its effectiveness in achieving climate targets.
  • Evidence Based Environment Clearances: Government must grant clearances only after there is scientific evidence and studies about each proposal for diversion which accurately identifies the impact on the climate. 
• Consultative Approach: By taking mutual consent with all stockholders after analyzing all pros & cons of the project.
• Preservation with Indigenous Rights: A comprehensive demarcation of boundaries & transition area should be made by recognizing rights of indigenous communities based on Forest Rights Acts 2006 & Forest Conservation Act.

Conclusion

To effectively conserve forests, the government must adopt rights-based approaches to environmental protection and sustainable development, ensuring that conservation efforts genuinely benefit the ecosystem and communities reliant on it and contribute to nation-building. 

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Context

The Supreme Court judgment on the Chandigarh mayor election bringing the issues associated with the elections to municipalities in news. 

Recent Supreme Court Verdict on Chandigarh Mayor Election

• The Supreme Court in the Chandigarh mayor election case quashed the result of the elections for the post of Mayor of the Chandigarh Municipal Corporation on account that the presiding officer intentionally defaced eight votes.
• The Supreme Court asserted its responsibility to do complete justice under Article 142 of the Indian Constitution to ensure that the process of electoral democracy is not thwarted by subterfuge at all levels of the electoral process.

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Municipality in India

• Origin & Evolution: This institution has existed in India since British time. 
  • The British for the first time setup Municipal Corporation at Madras in 1687. 
  • Lord Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 has been hailed as the ‘Magna Carta’ of local self-government and he is called the father of the local-self government in India. 
  • The Royal Commission on decentralisation was appointed in 1907, and it submitted its report in 1909. (Its chairman was Hobhouse). 
  • Government of India Act, 1919: By this act, under the dyarchical scheme introduced in Provinces, local self-government became a transferred subject. 
  • Government of India Act, 1935: By this act, local self-government was declared a provincial subject. 
  • 74th Constitutional Amendment Act: It was passed in 1992 and provided a uniform law for urban local government.
    • The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act has added a new Part IX-A to the Constitution of India, which is entitled as ‘The Municipalities’ and consists of provisions from Articles 243-P to 243-ZG.
    • This act has also added a new Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution. It contains 18 functional items of municipalities. 
      • It deals with Article 243-W.
    • The act gave constitutional status to the municipalities and has brought it under the purview of the justiciable part of the Constitution.
• Tenure: Article 243U of the 74th CAA stipulates that the duration of urban local governments is five years and that an election to constitute an urban local government should be completed “before the expiry of its duration”. 
  • Further, in case of dissolution of the elected council by the State, the election should be held before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.
• Elections Conducted by: State Election Commissions (SECs)
• Structure of Urban Local Government in India: There are 8 types of Urban local bodies:
  • Municipal Corporation: These are usually found in big cities such as Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, etc.
    • A municipal corporation is a type of local government in India which administers urban areas with a population of more than one million.
  • Municipality: These are usually found in smaller cities and are often called upon by other names such as the municipal council, municipal committee, municipal board, etc.
    • Municipality is an urban local body that administers a smaller urban area with a minimum population of 100,000 but less than 1,000,000.
  • Notified Area Committee: These are set up for the fast-developing towns and the towns lacking the basic amenities.
  • Town Area Committee: The town area committee is found in small towns. It has minimal authority such as street lighting, drainage roads, and conservancy.
  • Cantonment Board: It is usually set up for a civilian population living in the cantonment area.
  • Township: It is another form of urban government to provide basic facilities to the staff and workers living in the colonies established near the plant.
  • Port Trust: These are established in the port areas such as Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, etc. 
  • Special Purpose Agency: These agencies undertake the designated activities or specific functions belonging to the municipal corporations or municipalities.

Issues with Respect to Municipal Elections

• Non-Compliance by State Governments: Despite the Supreme Court stating in Suresh Mahajan v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022) that this constitutional mandate is inviolable, State governments do not hold timely elections for urban local governments.
  • As per Janaagraha’s Annual Survey of India’s City-Systems 2023 study, over 1,400 municipalities did not have elected councils in place, as of September 2021.
  • The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India’s report on the implementation of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act (74th CAA) revealed that, between 2015 and 2021, over 1,500 municipalities did not have elected councils.
    • Major cities like Chennai, Delhi, Mumbai and Bengaluru faced delays in holding elections ranging from months to years.
• Delay in Council Formation: In certain cases of elections to urban local governments, councils were not constituted, and elections of mayors, deputy mayors and standing committees were delayed. 
  • In Karnataka, there was a delay of 12-24 months in the formation of elected councils after the declaration of election results in most of the city corporations. 
• Discretionary Powers: There are various associated issues such as the discretion of government officials in scheduling elections on time, there is undue influence on officials to delay elections and discretion of officials in identifying the presiding officer.
• On Election Process: There is the manual ballot paper-based process, which raises concerns over the accountability and transparency of the election process.
• Concern over Accountability: Unlike the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, where there is a clear distinction between the legislature and the executive, in the case of a municipality, the mayor heads both the elected and the administrative wings of the city government.
  • There is also a concern over the independence of the presiding officer.
• On Tenure of Mayor: The duration of urban local governments is five years and that an election to constitute an urban local government should be completed “before the expiry of its duration”. 
  • However, the terms of mayors, deputy mayors and standing committees being less than five years is a concerning challenge. 
  • In India, 17% of cities including five of the eight largest ones have mayoral terms less than five years. 
• On Ward Delimitation: There are various concerns that arise over the conduction of ward delimitation in India.
  • Except for Meghalaya, all States have constituted SECs, only 11 have empowered them to conduct ward delimitation.
  • Municipal areas shall be divided into territorial constituencies to be known as wards.

Way Forward – Ensuring Timely, Free, and Fair Municipal Elections in India

• Policy Reforms: A reform roadmap for timely, free, and fair elections is much needed. 
• Standardisation of Tenure: There is a need for a standardisation of mayoral terms of five years.
  • The terms of mayors, deputy mayors and standing committees being less than five years is a concerning challenge that also needs attention.
• Evaluation & Accountability: Action needs to tackle issues such as discretion of government officials in scheduling elections, in identifying the presiding officer, undue influence on officials to delay elections, on independence of the presiding officer and the manual ballot paper-based process. 
  • It is the right time to also evaluate a potential role for the SECs in the elections of mayors, deputy mayors and standing committees. 
• Empower State Election Commissions (SECs): SECs need to play a more significant role. The Court has emphasised that in the domain of elections to panchayats and urban local governments under Part IX and Part IXA of the Constitution, SECs enjoy the same status as the Election Commission of India.
• Empowerment of SEC for Ward Delimitation: There is a need to empower and strengthen the Wards and its delimitation process.
• Clear Distinction on Roles: Like the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, there is a need for clear distinction between the legislature and the executive.
• Need for Judicial Interventions: Similar to the Chandigarh mayoral case, the Supreme Court needs to take such independent actions. Judiciary can bring greater salience to municipal elections.
  • There is a need to hold timely elections, which requires determined enforcement with the Supreme Court’s intervention. 

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