Dec 30 2024

A series of fatal plane crashes in December 2024, including the recent Jeju Air disaster, has claimed hundreds of lives and sparked concerns over aviation safety. 

Aviation Safety

  • The recent incident involving an Air India Airbus A320 aircraft at Goa’s Mopa airport is another wake-up call for Indian aviation.

About Civil aviation in India

  • The civil aviation industry in India has emerged as one of the fastest growing industries in the country during the last three years.
  • It can be broadly classified into:
    • Scheduled air transport service which includes domestic and international airlines, 
    • Non-scheduled air transport service which consists of charter operators and air taxi operators, air cargo service, which includes air transportation of cargo and mail.

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Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

  • The DGCA is a regulatory body in India that is responsible for civil aviation safety.
  • Responsibilities: Regulates air transport services, enforces air safety and airworthiness standards, and coordinates with the International Civil Aviation Organization
  • Headquarters: New Delhi. 

Other organizations related to civil aviation in India:

  • Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS): Responsible for air transport safety and security 
  • Airports Authority of India (AAI): Responsible for airport maintenance and improvements 
  • Airports Economic Regulatory Authority (AERA): Responsible for regulating the aeronautical services and airport charges, and monitoring the performance standards of major airports 
  • Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB): An organization that investigates aircraft accidents 

Status of Indian Civil Aviation Sector

Aspect Details
Growth and Market Size India is the third-largest aviation market globally, projected to become second-largest by 2030.
Passenger Traffic Handled 341 million passengers in FY 2023-24, including domestic and international travelers.
Fleet Size Indian carriers operate a fleet of over 700 aircraft, expected to increase to over 1,200 by 2030.
Regulatory Authority Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)
Airports and Infrastructure 148 operational airports, with expansion projects underway to reach 220 airports by 2025 (UDAN initiative). As per AAI plan, 300 airports in India by 2047
UDAN Scheme Ude Desh Ka Aam Naagrik (UDAN) launched to boost connectivity to underserved and unserved areas.
Employment The sector supports 4 million jobs, directly and indirectly, contributing to economic growth.
Cargo Traffic Handled 3.4 million metric tons of air cargo in FY 2023-24, a key driver of e-commerce and exports.
FDI Policy Allows up to 100% FDI in scheduled air transport services (49% via automatic route).

Major Safety Concerns for the Aviation Sector

  • Runway Safety Issues: Runway incursions, excursions, and confusion are frequent safety concerns.
    • Over 50% of accidents occur during landing or takeoff phases, according to the IATA 2023 Safety Report.
    • The Goa Air India taxiway error in 2024 highlights runway confusion. The Kozhikode (2020) and Mangaluru (2010) crashes were due to runway overruns, causing 179 fatalities collectively.
  • Bird Strikes: Engine ingestion and windshield strikes can lead to engine failures or structural damage.
    • The South Korea plane crash (2024) with 179 fatalities is suspected to involve a bird strike. The famous US Airways Flight 1549 (2009) landed in the Hudson River after both engines failed due to bird ingestion.
    • Airports near landfills or with poor wildlife management see higher bird strike rates, such as Ahmedabad Airport in 2019 (11 wildlife strikes per 10,000 flights).
  • Human Factors and Fatigue: Fatigue among pilots and crew leads to impaired decision-making and safety errors.
    • IATA notes fatigue as a contributing factor in 20-30% of aviation incidents.
    • A survey by Safety Matters Foundation involving 530 airline pilots in India revealed that flight duties exceeding 10 hours, frequent tail swaps, and minimal rest periods significantly contributed to pilot fatigue. 
  • Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT): CFIT occurs when an airworthy aircraft is flown into terrain due to pilot error or misjudgment.
    • CFIT remains a leading cause of aviation fatalities globally, especially in mountainous regions.
    • The Nepal crash in January 2023 killed all onboard, primarily attributed to pilot error.
  • Air Traffic Control (ATC) Challenges: The growing air traffic globally has stressed ATC systems, requiring advanced navigation technologies and skilled personnel. 
    • The backlog in recruiting Air Traffic Controllers (ATCOs) in India was highlighted in a parliamentary report, emphasizing the need for prompt procedural resolutions to meet increasing demands​.
  • Loss of Control In-Flight (LOC-I): LOC-I involves the inability of pilots to maintain control due to technical issues, adverse weather, or pilot error.
    • LOC-I accounted for 72 fatalities globally in 2023, according to IATA.
    • Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 (2014) is a well-known LOC-I incident where the cause remains speculative.
  • Adverse Weather Conditions: Weather-related challenges like wind shear, thunderstorms, and icing conditions significantly impact flight safety.
    • Weather is cited as a contributing factor in 20% of global aviation incidents (IATA 2023).
    • The Taiwan crash involving Singapore Airlines in 2000 occurred during heavy rain, killing 83 people.
  • Ground Handling Errors: Improper cargo loading, ground collisions, and GSE maintenance issues pose risks during aircraft preparation.
    • IATA noted that ground damage incidents cost the aviation industry over $10 billion annually by 2035.

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Comparison of Aviation Safety to Other Modes of Transportation

  • Fatality Rate per Distance Traveled
    • Aviation: Globally, air travel is the safest mode of transportation in terms of fatalities per billion passenger-kilometers. 
      • For instance, the fatality rate for commercial aviation in 2023 was 0.03 fatalities per million flights, meaning a person would need to fly daily for over 103,000 years to encounter a fatal accident (IATA).
    • Road Transport: Road transport is significantly riskier. The fatality rate for cars is 3.1 deaths per billion passenger-kilometers, with road accidents accounting for 1.3 million deaths annually worldwide (WHO, 2023).
    • Railways: Rail transport has a fatality rate of 0.07 deaths per billion passenger-kilometers, making it safer than road transport but still riskier than aviation.
  • Accident Rates
    • Aviation: Commercial aviation had only 30 accidents globally in 2023 (IATA), with a significant portion involving no fatalities.
    • Road Transport: Road accidents occur at a rate of 56.2 per 100,000 vehicles annually, contributing to both fatalities and severe injuries.
    • Railways: Rail accidents are rare but can be catastrophic, such as the Odisha train collision in India (2023), which caused over 288 fatalities.
  • Impact of Accidents
    • Aviation: Accidents are high-impact but rare. For example, the South Korea plane crash in 2024 resulted in 179 fatalities, a significant number but a rare event.
    • Road Transport: Accidents are frequent but generally involve fewer casualties per incident. For example, India reports 400 daily road fatalities.
    • Railways: Accidents can be catastrophic when they occur, such as train collisions or derailments, often involving hundreds of passengers.

About International Air Transport Association (IATA)

  • An international trade association for the world’s airlines, established in 1945 in Havana, Cuba, with 57 founding members. 
  • Its mission is to represent, lead, and serve the airline industry.
  • Members: IATA currently represents some 330 airlines, comprising over 80% of global air traffic. Members include the world’s leading passenger and cargo airlines.
  • Headquarters: Located in Montreal, Canada.
  • Goals: To help airlines reduce costs and improve efficiency by simplifying operations and boosting passenger convenience. 
    • It assists airlines in operating under clearly defined norms in a safe, secure, efficient, and cost-effective manner.

Key Initiatives Regarding Aviation Safety in India

  • DGCA Oversight and Audits (1997): The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) has been conducting regular safety audits since its establishment as the regulatory authority. 
    • These audits focus on airlines, airports, and ground handling operations to identify and rectify systemic safety deficiencies.
  • National Aviation Safety Plan (NASP): DGCA has published the National Aviation Safety Plan (NASP) for the period 2024–2028.
    • The NASP is a strategy for improving aviation safety in India, and it’s aligned with the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Global Aviation Safety Plan (GASP).
    • First edition published for 2018-2022.
  • UDAN Scheme and Safety Compliance (2016): Under the Regional Connectivity Scheme (UDAN), newly developed airports are inspected for safety compliance and wildlife management. 
    • This ensures safe and efficient operations while expanding connectivity to underserved areas.
  • Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL) Regulations (2011): These regulations address pilot fatigue by enforcing adequate rest periods and limiting duty hours. 
    • The initiative ensures better operational safety by minimizing human errors caused by exhaustion.
  • Wildlife and Bird Strike Mitigation (2014): Recognizing wildlife strikes as a critical safety concern, the DGCA began rigorous inspections and introduced wildlife hazard management programs at airports to reduce bird strike incidents.
  • GAGAN (GPS-Aided Navigation System) (2015): The GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation system, developed by ISRO and AAI, became operational to improve navigation and landing precision, especially in adverse weather conditions and challenging terrains.
  • Collaboration with IATA and ICAO: India collaborates with international organizations like IATA and ICAO to conduct risk-based safety audits, adopt global best practices, and implement advanced training programs for pilots and air traffic controllers.
  • Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) (2011): The AAIB was formed to conduct independent and thorough investigations of aviation accidents. 
    • It focuses on analyzing causes and recommending measures to prevent similar incidents.

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International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

  • Establishment: ICAO is a specialised UN agency, created in 1944 to establish standards and procedures for global air navigation.
  • Purpose: It promotes safe and orderly international air transport growth.
  • Chicago Convention: The Chicago Convention is a treaty that regulates international civil aviation and created the ICAO, a UN agency.
  • Signed on: Signed on 7th December 1944 in Chicago.
  • Membership: 193 member countries, including India.
  • Headquarters: Montreal, Canada.

Global Safety Standards in Aviation

  • ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs)
    • Established By: International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), 1947.
    • Key Features:
      • Govern aspects of international aviation, including safety, security, navigation, and environmental protection.
      • Defined in Annexes to the Chicago Convention (e.g., Annex 13 for accident investigation, Annex 14 for aerodrome design and operations).
    • Adoption by India: Fully implemented by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) since India became an ICAO member in 1947.
  • IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA)
    • Established By: International Air Transport Association (IATA), 2003.
    • Key Features:
      • Put global industry standards for evaluating an airline’s operational management and control systems.
      • Mandatory for IATA member airlines.
    • All IATA member airlines in India (e.g., Air India, Indigo, Vistara) are IOSA-certified.
  • Global Aviation Safety Plan (GASP)
    • Established By: ICAO, 1997.
    • Key Features: Provides a global safety improvement framework, focuses on reducing runway incidents, controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), and loss of control in-flight (LOC-I).
    • DGCA developed India’s National Aviation Safety Plan (NASP) in line with GASP goals in 2018.
  • Flight Duty and Fatigue Regulations
    • Set By: ICAO (2011).
    • Key Features: Standardizes flight and duty time limitations for crew.
    • DGCA implemented Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL) regulations in 2011.
  • Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)
    • Introduced by: Honeywell (1996).
    • Key Features: Alerts pilots about terrain proximity, significantly reducing CFIT incidents.
      • Required for all commercial aircraft worldwide.
    • Mandated by DGCA for all Indian commercial aircraft since 2002.
  • Pilot Training Standards
    • Established By: ICAO (2012 for training reforms, 2019 for UPRT mandate).
    • Key Features:
      • Includes upset prevention and recovery training (UPRT).
      • Standardized simulator training for emergencies such as engine failures and adverse weather.
    • DGCA implemented ICAO’s Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT) standards for all Indian commercial pilots starting 2019.
  • Global Navigation and Surveillance Systems
    • ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast): Introduced by ICAO in 2007 to enhance real-time aircraft tracking.
      • Fully operational in India since 2014, enabling real-time tracking of aircraft.
    • GAGAN (GPS-Aided Geo-Augmented Navigation): Launched in India in 2015 to improve approach and landing precision.
  • Global Collaboration
    • Aviation Safety Reporting Systems:
      • Programs like ASIAS (Aviation Safety Information Analysis and Sharing) in the USA, established 2007, promote data-driven decision-making.
    • Runway Safety Programs:
      • GAPPRE (Global Action Plan for the Prevention of Runway Excursions) introduced in 2021 by ICAO and IATA.

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Best Global Examples of Aviation Safety

  • United States: Advanced Air Traffic Management
    • The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) operates the NextGen Air Traffic Control System, leveraging satellite-based navigation and real-time data sharing.
    • The FAA’s ASIAS (Aviation Safety Information Analysis and Sharing) system identifies safety risks proactively by analyzing vast amounts of operational data.
  • Singapore: Runway Safety and Incident-Free Record
    • Singapore Changi Airport employs runway incursion prevention systems and automated ground operations.
  • Japan: Earthquake-Resistant Airport Infrastructure
    • Airports like Kansai International are designed to withstand natural disasters, including earthquakes and tsunamis.
  • South Korea: Advanced Bird Strike Prevention
    • Deployment of bird detection radar systems and habitat management around airports.
  • Norway: Arctic Operations Safety
    • Specialized training and equipment for operations in extreme Arctic conditions.

Way Forward for India’s Aviation Safety

  • Enhance Infrastructure and Technology: Expand airport capacity and improve runway design to reduce risks of runway excursions.
    • Deploy advanced wildlife detection systems, such as radar-based bird monitoring, to mitigate bird strike incidents.
    • Invest in automation and AI-driven systems for real-time flight and ground operations monitoring.
  • Strengthen Regulatory Oversight: Ensure DGCA’s compliance with ICAO’s Universal Safety Oversight Audit Program (USOAP) recommendations.
    • Conduct more frequent safety audits for airlines, airports, and maintenance organizations to identify risks proactively.
    • Increase the independence and resources of the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) for impartial and thorough investigations.
  • Adopt Advanced Safety Management Systems (SMS): Mandate comprehensive SMS implementation across all airlines, airports, and ground handling services.
    • Encourage data-sharing initiatives like IATA’s ASIAS program for predictive safety risk analysis.
    • Promote a “Just Culture” to encourage error reporting without fear of punitive action.
  • Focus on Pilot and Crew Training: Expand the scope of Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT) and include regular simulator training for adverse scenarios.
    • Address crew fatigue with stricter enforcement of Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL).
    • Incorporate psychological training to enhance decision-making under stress.
  • Improve Regional Connectivity and Safety: Ensure safety compliance at smaller airports developed under the UDAN scheme.
    • Upgrade air traffic management systems at regional airports to match the standards of larger hubs.
    • Implement GAGAN-based navigation aids in underserved and challenging terrains.
  • Collaborate with International Bodies: Work closely with ICAO and IATA for continuous improvement in safety standards.
    • Leverage international expertise to adopt best practices, such as CFIT and LOC-I prevention programs.
    • Participate actively in global safety initiatives like GAPPRE (Runway Excursions Prevention) and fatigue management frameworks.
  • Learning from Global Best Practices:: India should adopt Singapore’s approach to proactive safety management and pilot training.
    • Both airlines and regulators must be held accountable for failures.

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Conclusion

Recent aviation accidents highlight the persistent need for stringent safety measures, advanced technology, and proactive risk management. While global aviation safety has improved significantly, challenges like human errors, infrastructure gaps, and external hazards demand continuous vigilance and collaboration to ensure safer skies.

Additional reading: Indian Aviation Sector, Bharatiya Vayuyan Vidheyak Bill

Communist Party of India

The Communist Party of India is celebrating its  centenary year in 2025 (December 26, 1925).

About Communist Party of India

  • The Communist Party of India is the political party of the Indian working class. 
  • It is a voluntary organisation of workers, peasants, toiling people in general, intelligentsia and others devoted to the cause of socialism and communism.

What Is Communism?

  • Communism is a political and economic ideology that positions itself in opposition to liberal democracy and capitalism. 
  • For Example:
    • Communism is the official form of government in China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam.
  • It advocates instead for a classless system in which the means of production are owned communally and private property is nonexistent or severely curtailed.

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Formation of  Communist Party of India: Historical Background

  • The Communist Party of India (CPI) was formed on 26 December 1925 at the first Party Conference in Kanpur, which was then known as Cawnpore
  • S. V. Ghate was the first General Secretary of the CPI.
  • Leaders like M.N. Roy and Abani Mukherji established CPI in Tashkent after the second Congress of the Comintern.

Contributions of Communist Party of India: Pre Independence

  • Freedom Struggle
  • Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case
    • It was a controversial court case initiated by the British government in 1924 to target several newly turned communists, including M.N. Roy, Muzaffar Ahmad, S.A. Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalini Gupta. 
    • They were charged with conspiring to overthrow British rule in India through a violent revolution.
  • Demand for Poorna Swaraj:
    • One of the central contributions of Communists to the independence movement was their early and steadfast demand for Poorna Swaraj, a demand later adopted by Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose.
  • Demand for Constituent Assembly: 
    • Communists demanded the formation of a Constituent Assembly that would represent the will of the people. 

Communist Party of India (Marxist) 

Communist Party of India

  • The Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI (M) is a communist political party in India.  
  • The Central Committee is the highest decision-making body of CPI (M).
  • CPI (M) was formed from a split in the Communist Party of India (CPI) on November 7, 1964.
  • The communist party has been a lynchpin for people’s movements on issues of farmers, tribals, Dalits, workers and minorities.
  • The flag of CPI (M) is seen as a red flag and there is a crossed hammer in the centre and a sickle in white.

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      • They argued that any new political order should be based on the sovereignty of the people, reflected later in the Preamble’s invocation of “We, the People of India”.
    • Communists’ Impact on Constituent Assembly Debates: Communists’ influence can be seen in the Constituent Assembly debates over land reforms, workers’ rights, and the protection of backward classes
      • Example: The Telangana Rebellion, a major peasant uprising in Nizam’s Hyderabad state, exemplified the CPI’s commitment to land reforms and social justice.
  • Pioneering Labour Rights: The Communist Party was responsible for achieving the right to form labour unions even during the British rule and Industrial Disputes Act.
  • Communist Ideals in the Indian Constitution: 
    •  Vision of Social justice & equality:  The Preamble reflects ideals like justice, equality, and fraternity, championed by communists for an inclusive and democratic India. 
    •  Influence on Fundamental Rights: The inclusion of fundamental rights, provisions for social justice and the framework for economic equality can be traced back to the ideas promoted by the communist leadership.

Post Independence 

  • Principal opposition party: Nationally, it gained relatively small numbers of seats in the Lok Sabha elections of 1951, 1957, and 1962 compared with the ruling and then-dominant Congress Party.
    • Each time it was enough for the CPI to be the principal opposition party. 
  • Formation of Non-congress government: In 1957 the CPI defeated Congress in legislative assembly elections in Kerala and formed the first non-Congress government in independent India
  • Governance: The Communist struggles had played a key role in bringing out the Forest Rights Act, Right To Information Act and other Acts during the UPA-I rule.

Challanges

  • Split:  In 1964 ideological differences had built up over a split between the Soviets and the Chinese communists in the 1950s.
  • Electoral Decline:  In the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, the CPI was able to win two seats and the CPI(M)  was reduced to 4, its lowest since it first fielded candidates in 1967. 
    • The slide in leftist support continued in the 2014 Lok Sabha polls, where the CPI could win only one seat and the CPI(M) dropped to nine.

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Conclusion

The CPI has consistently and strongly resisted efforts to weaken constitutional safeguards, stressing the importance of social and economic justice in a country still facing significant inequalities. This continuing struggle is crucial for protecting India’s democratic structure against the threats of communal fascism and exploitative capitalism.

Despite 1.2 lakh overseas Indians registering for the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, voter turnout was very low. 

  • Kerala led in registrations and voting, while many states saw no participation.

Key Highlights of Election Commission Report

  • Overall Participation of NRI Voters
    • Registrations (2024): 1,19,374
    • Registrations (2019): 99,844
    • Voter Turnout (2024): Only 2,958 (2.48% of registered overseas electors)

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Data On Turnout by State

State Registered Electors (2024) Voted (2024) Turnout (%)
Kerala 89,839 2,670 2.97%
Andhra Pradesh 7,927 195 2.46%
Maharashtra 5,097 17 0.33%
Gujarat 885 2 0.23%
Telangana , Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam, Goa, Bihar Multiple states with zero turnout among registered overseas voters.

Provisions for NRI/Overseas Voting

  • Voting rights for NRIs were introduced only in 2011, through an amendment to the Representation of the People Act 1950.
  • Eligibility:
    • Must be an Indian citizen without citizenship in another country.
    • Eligible to register in the electoral roll of their constituency in India based on the address in their passport.
    • Absence from India due to employment, education, or other valid reasons.
  • Voting Process:
    • Register using Form 6A submitted to the Electoral Registration Officer (ERO) of their constituency.
    • Voting can only be done in-person at the designated polling booth in India.
    • Identity verification requires presenting a valid Indian passport.

Voting Rights of Expatriates

  • Many countries allow expatriates to vote, with eligibility criteria and voting procedures varying by nation.
  • United Kingdom: British citizens living abroad can register as overseas voters for up to 15 years after leaving the UK.
  • Eligible for Voting,  if they are British or Irish citizens and were registered voters in the UK within the last 15 years.
  • Minors at the time of departure can vote if their parent/guardian was registered to vote in the UK. Voting options include voting in person, by post, or through a proxy.

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Initiatives to Improve Overseas Voting

  • Proxy Voting:
    • Bill passed by the Lok Sabha in 2018 but not tabled in the Rajya Sabha.
    • NRIs could authorize a relative in India to vote on their behalf.
  • Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS):
    • Proposed in 2020 by the Election Commission to facilitate remote voting for overseas electors.
    • The process involves electronically transmitting ballots, which voters return via post after marking their choice.
    • Requires amendments to election rules, pending government approval.

Challenges in Improving Oversea Voter Turnout

  • Travel and Logistical Constraints:
    • High cost and time required to travel to India.
    • Employment and academic commitments abroad prevent physical presence.
  • Limited Voting Mechanisms: In-person voting is the only option under current laws, creating barriers for NRIs.
  • Legislative Delays: Proxy voting and ETPBS remain stalled due to the lack of legislative action.
  • Awareness and Outreach: Limited awareness among NRIs about registration and voting processes.

Way Forward

  • Policy Reforms: Expedite amendments to allow postal ballots and proxy voting for NRIs. Reforms in Election rules to accommodate remote voting technologies.
  • Enhanced Awareness Campaigns: Launch targeted campaigns to educate NRIs about voter registration and participation processes.
  • Streamlined Processes: Simplify the application and verification procedures for overseas voters.
    • Collaborate with Indian embassies to facilitate document submission and voting logistics.
  • Pilot Projects: Implement pilot programs for ETPBS to test feasibility and resolve technical challenges.

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Conclusion

The low participation of overseas Indian voters in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections calls for urgent electoral reforms. Simplifying voting mechanisms and addressing logistical barriers can empower the Indian diaspora to actively engage in the democratic process, fostering a more inclusive electoral system.

About NRI

  • NRI stands for Non-Resident Indian. It refers to an Indian citizen who resides outside India for a significant period. 
  • The specific definition can vary depending on the context, but generally, it involves staying outside India for more than 182 days in a financial year.
  • As per section 6 of the Income-tax Act, an individual is said to be non-resident in India if he is not a resident in India and an individual is deemed to be resident in India in any previous year if he satisfies any of the following conditions:
    • If he is in India for a period of 182 days or more during the previous year; or
    • If he is in India for a period of 60 days or more during the previous year and 365 days or more during 4 years immediately preceding the previous year.
  • However, in respect of an Indian citizen and a person of Indian origin who visits India during the year, the period of 60 days as mentioned in (2) above shall be substituted with 182 days.
  • Rights Enjoyed by NRIs
    • Voting Rights: NRIs have the right to vote in Indian elections.
    • Property Ownership: They can own property in India, subject to certain regulations.
    • Inheritance Rights: NRIs have the right to inherit property in India.
    • Access to Education and Healthcare: NRIs can access education and healthcare facilities in India.
  • Number of NRIs in 2024: The estimated number of NRIs worldwide in 2024 is around 32 million.
    • This large diaspora contributes significantly to India’s economy and cultural exchange.

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) approved the translocation of 15 tigers from Madhya Pradesh to Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.

Key Highlights of the Translocation

  • Scale of Translocation: This marks the largest relocation of big cats from a single state in India.
    • Tiger TranslocationMadhya Pradesh is facilitating the project as it hosts the largest tiger population in the country, with 785 tigers.
  • Source reserves: Tigers will be translocated from Bandhavgarh, Panna, Kanha, and Pench Tiger Reserves in Madhya Pradesh.
  • Destination Details:
    • Rajasthan: Four tigresses.
    • Chhattisgarh: Two male tigers and six tigresses.
    • Odisha: One male tiger and two tigresses.
  • Funding and Responsibility: The states receiving the tigers will cover all expenses related to the translocation process.
  • Objective of the Relocation:  Enhance tiger conservation efforts across the country by reintroducing or bolstering tiger populations in the recipient states.

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Overview of Kanha, Bandhavgarh, and Pench Tiger Reserves

Aspect Kanha Tiger Reserve (Kanha-Kisli National Park) Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve Pench Tiger Reserve
Significance Largest national park in Madhya Pradesh Known for one of the highest densities of Royal Bengal Tigers in India Spans across Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
Location Maikal range of the Satpura Mountains Between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges in Umaria district, Madhya Pradesh Spans the Seoni and Chhindwara districts in Madhya Pradesh and extends into the Nagpur district in Maharashtra
Distinct Feature First tiger reserve in India with an official mascot, ‘Bhoorsingh the Barasingha‘ (IUCN Status: Vulnerable) Home to the ancient Bandhavgarh Fort, linked to the legend of Lord Rama and Lakshmana Inspiration for Rudyard Kipling’s “The Jungle Book”; Pench River flows through the heart of the reserve
Vegetation Tropical moist deciduous forests Tropical moist deciduous forests, sal trees, grasslands, and bamboo on lower slopes Southern dry broadleaf teak forests and tropical mixed deciduous forests
Flora Predominantly Sal (Shorea robusta) forests Notable species include Saj, Dhaora, Tendu, Arjun, Amla, and Palas Includes teak, saag, mahua, and various grasses and shrubs
Fauna Home to Royal Bengal Tigers, leopards, sloth bears, and Indian wild dogs Known for the highest density of Royal Bengal Tigers; also leopards, wild dogs, wolves, jackals, chital, sambar, barking deer, nilgai, and chowsingha. Abundant populations of chital, sambar, nilgai, gaur (Indian bison), wild boar; key predators include tigers, leopards, wild dogs, and wolves
Avian Diversity Rich birdlife with species like Malabar Pied Hornbill, Indian Pitta, and Grey-Headed Fishing Eagle Diverse bird species, including Malabar Pied Hornbill, Indian Pitta, and Grey-Headed Fishing Eagle Over 325 species of birds, including Malabar Pied Hornbill, Indian Pitta, and Grey-Headed Fishing Eagle

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About Tiger Translocation Project

  • First Project: Initiated in 2018, with two tigers relocated from Kanha and Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserves to Satkosia Tiger Reserve in Odisha.
  • Objective:
    • To reintroduce tiger populations in areas within their historical range where they have been extirpated or have gone extinct.
    • To alleviate territorial disputes in regions with overpopulation of tigers.
  • Key Authority: The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) plays a pivotal role in these projects.
  • Funding: The receiving states bear the costs of translocation.
Additional Reading: Pench Tiger Reserve (PTR)

The central government will borrow ₹3.94 lakh crore via T-bills in January-March FY24, up from ₹2.47 lakh crore in October-December, per RBI’s auction calendar.

About Government Securities (G-Secs)

  • G-Sec are tradable debt instruments issued by the Central or State Governments to manage fiscal deficits.
  • Types:
    • Short-term: Treasury bills (T-Bills) with maturities of 91 days, 182 days, or 364 days.
    • Long-term: Government bonds or dated securities with maturity of one year or more.
  • Issuance: The Central Government issues both T-bills and bonds.
    • State Governments issue only bonds called State Development Loans (SDLs).
  • Risk Profile: Considered risk-free due to government backing (termed gilt-edged instruments).

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Key Highlights on T-Bills Borrowing

  • Breakdown of Borrowing:
    • ₹1.68 lakh crore via 91-day T-bills.
    • ₹1.28 lakh crore via 182-day T-bills.
    • ₹98,000 crore via 364-day T-bills.
  • Increased Supply: T-bill borrowings have risen due to tight liquidity conditions in the market.
    • Quarterly borrowing increased sharply compared to the previous quarter.
  • Treasury-BillsFlexibility in Auction: RBI, in consultation with the government, retains the flexibility to adjust auction amounts and timing based on market conditions and requirements.

About Treasury Bills (T-Bills)

  • Characteristics: They are Zero-coupon securities issued at a discount and redeemed at face value upon maturity. It was introduced in India for the first time in 1917.
  • Purpose and Usage:
    • Used to raise short-term funds by the government.
    • Can be used by banks to meet Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) requirements or as collateral for repo transactions with the RBI.
  • Eligibility: Individuals, trusts, institutions, and banks can invest in T-bills.

Zero-Coupon Security

A zero-coupon security is a debt instrument that doesn’t pay periodic interest (coupons) to the holder. 

Instead, it’s sold at a deep discount to its face value. At maturity, the investor receives the full face value of the bond.

  • Market Role: Key instruments for managing liquidity and funding within the financial system.
  • Open Market Operations (OMOs): RBI buys or sells G-secs to manage liquidity and stabilize inflation.
    • T-bills are often sold to absorb excess liquidity or purchased to inject liquidity.
  • Auction Mechanisms: RBI conducts regular auctions for T-bills and G-secs to ensure smooth borrowing processes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Treasury Bills

Advantages of Treasury Bills Disadvantages of Treasury Bills
Safety and Security: Backed by the Indian government, making them low-risk investments. Liquidity Tightness: High borrowing through T-Bills can indicate constrained liquidity in the financial system.
Liquidity: Can be easily sold in the secondary market before maturity, offering ease of exit. Market Sensitivity: Increased supply of T-Bills may impact short-term interest rates and market stability.
Short-Term Investment Horizon: Ideal for meeting short-term financial goals like emergency funds or vacations. Investor Concentration: Predominantly held by financial institutions, limiting retail investor participation.
Diversification: Helps reduce overall portfolio risk by adding a low-risk asset class. Limited Returns: Yields are generally lower compared to other investment options with higher risks.

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Way Forward

  • Diversified Participation: Encourage greater involvement of retail investors in T-bill auctions through awareness campaigns.
  • Efficient Liquidity Management: Streamline OMO operations to ensure balanced money supply.
  • Policy Adaptability: Maintain flexibility in borrowing strategies to respond to evolving economic conditions.
  • Market Stability: Monitor the impact of increased T-bill supply on short-term interest rates and market dynamics.

By addressing these challenges and leveraging effective monetary tools, the government and RBI can ensure stable borrowing conditions and robust financial market operations.

Sea otters are restoring California’s coastal ecosystems by consuming thousands of invasive green crabs annually at Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, effectively tackling a persistent ecological challenge.

About Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris)

Sea Otters

  • Taxonomy: Aquatic mammal of the weasel family.
  • Habitat: Found along the Pacific Ocean coasts, especially in North America (from Alaska to California) and parts of Asia (Russia and Japan).
  • Behavior: Spend most of their time in the water but occasionally rest onshore.
  • Physical Characteristics: Have webbed feet, water-repellent fur, and nostrils/ears that close in water.
    • Unlike most marine mammals, they lack blubber and depend on consuming large amounts of food to avoid hypothermia.

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Keystone Species

  • A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. 
  • These species play a critical role in maintaining the structure and function of an ecosystem. They can influence the types and numbers of various other species in the community.
  • Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether.

  • Diet: Carnivorous, feeding on sea urchins, crabs, mollusks, clams, and fish.
  • Ecological Role: Act as keystone species in kelp forests by controlling populations of green crabs, sea urchins, and other species harmful to kelp ecosystems. 
  • Climate Significance: Healthy kelp forests maintained by sea otters absorb substantial amounts of carbon, reducing ocean acidification and protecting marine biodiversity.
  • Sub species of sea otter:

Subspecies IUCN Status Distribution
Enhydra lutris lutris (Asian sea otter) Endangered Kuril Islands, Commander Islands
Enhydra lutris kenyoni (Northern sea otter) Endangered Aleutian Islands to Oregon
Enhydra lutris nereis (Southern sea otter) Endangered Central and Southern California

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Sea Otters

Note: All three sea otter subspecies are classified as Endangered by the IUCN

Sea Otters’ Role in Controlling Green Crabs

  • Predatory Impact: Sea otters consume between 50,000 and 120,000 green crabs annually.
  • Unique Metabolism: Described as “super voracious predators,” sea otters rely on a rapid metabolism to stay warm, consuming about 25% of their body weight daily.
  • Ecological Contribution: Their predation has significantly curtailed the green crab population, helping to restore balance and protect coastal ecosystems.

Sea Otters

India’s first Fishing Cat Collaring Project, led by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)-Dehradun, is set to complete its second census in the coming weeks.

  • The Fishing Cat Collaring Project spans three years and is scheduled to conclude by March/April 2025.

About Fishing Cat Collaring Project

  • Aim: To study the fishing cat’s home range, behavior, habitat ecology, feeding habits, and space use.
  • Fishing cats will be captured and fitted with lightweight collars containing Geographical Information System (GIS) equipment.

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About Fishing Cat

  • Habitat: Primarily inhabits wetlands, swamps, marshy areas around oxbow lakes, reed beds, tidal creeks, and mangrove forests.
  • Fishing Cat Collaring ProjectGlobal Distribution: Found mainly in Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Mekong Delta of Vietnam and Thailand, Pakistan, East Cambodia, and the northern Himalayan foothills.
  • Distribution in India:
    • Mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.
      • In 2012, the fishing cat was declared as the State Animal of West Bengal 
    • River valleys of the Ganga and Brahmaputra near the Himalayan foothills
    • Western Ghats
    • Population Trends: The Chilika Lake, Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon, has 176 fishing cats, according to a census conducted by Chilika Development Authority (CDA) in collaboration with The Fishing Cat Project (TFCP).
  • Conservation Status:
    • IUCN: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix II
    • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
  • Behavior and Features:
    • Adept swimmer and frequently dives into water to catch fish.
    • Nocturnal predator, feeding on frogs, crustaceans, snakes, birds, and scavenging carcasses of larger animals.
    • Breeds throughout the year.
    • Unique feature: Its muscular tail is shorter than that of a domestic cat and is ringed with 6-7 distinct, incomplete dark bands.
  • The Fishing Cat Project (TFCP) is a long-term research and conservation initiative focused on the fishing cat.
  • Launched in 2010, TFCP operates primarily in West Bengal and Odisha, India.
  • Key Objectives of TFCP:
    • Research: To study the ecology, behavior, and distribution of fishing cats in their natural habitats.
    • Conservation: To implement effective conservation strategies to protect fishing cat populations and their habitats.
    • Community Engagement: To raise awareness about the importance of fishing cat conservation among local communities and stakeholders.
  • TFCP’s Impact:
    • Scientific Research: TFCP has conducted extensive research on fishing cats, including population surveys, habitat assessments, and camera trap studies.
    • Habitat Protection: The project has worked to protect and restore fishing cat habitats, such as wetlands and riverine ecosystems.
    • Community Outreach: TFCP has successfully engaged local communities in conservation efforts through education programs, workshops, and alternative livelihood initiatives.

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About Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS)

Fishing Cat Collaring Project

  • Location: Part of the Godavari estuary where the Coringa River meets the Bay of Bengal in Kakinada district, Andhra Pradesh.
  • Habitat for Fishing Cat: By 2018, the population of fishing cats in the sanctuary  was 115, as per the first survey of fishing cats
    • The number, however, has increased significantly over the past five years, given the frequency of sightings of the species recorded across and near the sanctuary.
  • Significance:
    • India’s second-largest mangrove forest, known for its substantial fishing cat population.
    • The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary in the Krishna estuarine forest, also in Andhra Pradesh, is another habitat for fishing cats.
  • Geographical Features:
    • Located between the sanctuary and the sea is “Hope Island,” which blocks the direct confluence of the Godavari River with the Bay of Bengal.
    • Approximately 40% of the sanctuary comprises sea-backwaters.
  • Vegetation: Composed of extensive mangrove and dry deciduous tropical forests.
  • Flora: Dominated by mangrove species like Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp., and Sonnertia spp.
  • Fauna:
    • Endangered mammals: Smooth Indian otter, fishing cat, jackal.
    • Birds: Black-capped kingfisher, Brahminy kite, sea gulls, and reef heron.
  • Special Feature: The sanctuary’s sea coast serves as a breeding ground for Olive Ridley turtles.

Tens of thousands of migrants left West Africa in 2024 for Canary Islands, a Spanish archipelago close to the African coast that has increasingly been used as a stepping stone to continental Europe

About Canary Island

Location

Canary Island

  • An autonomous Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean.
  • Situated about 100 km west of Morocco and 1,300 km southeast of Gibraltar.
  • Politically and economically part of Europe, geographically part of continental Africa.
  • Located in the Macaronesia region, southwest of Spain, near Africa, Europe, and the Americas.

Geographical Features

  • Largest Archipelago in Macaronesia: Includes seven major islands and several islets.
  • Divided into Two Groups:
    • Western Islands: La Palma, Tenerife, La Gomera, Gran Canaria, and Ferro; characterized by mountain peaks rising from the deep seabed.
    • Eastern Islands: Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, and six islets forming the Chinijo Archipelago on the Canary Ridge plateau.

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  • Volcanic Origin: Formed by volcanic eruptions; some volcanoes like Teide Peak (Tenerife, 3,718 m), are still active.
    • Four islands (Tenerife, Lanzarote, El Hierro, La Palma) have had eruptions in modern times.
    • Beaches: Notable for black sand due to volcanic activities
  • Protected Regions: Fuerteventura, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, preserves Canarian Egyptian vultures.
    • Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park: Includes La Graciosa and six islets; supports diverse flora and fauna.
    • Home to Teide National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Climate: The Canary Islands experience a subtropical climate characterized by warm temperatures and mild seasonal variations.
  • Canary Current: A cold ocean current flowing southwest along the northwest coast of Africa, is named after the Canary Islands.
    • This current significantly influences the region by contributing to the dry, rainless conditions along the coastal areas of the Sahara Desert.

The recently published ‘The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023’ has highlighted the country’s successful efforts to balance development with environmental conservation.

Snapshot of The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023

  • ISFR is a biennial assessment of the country’s forest resources using satellite data and field information.
    • The first report was published in 1987, and the ISFR 2023 marks the 18th edition.
  • Published By: It is published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
  • Data Source: It utilizes satellite imagery from ISRO’s LISS-III sensor on IRS Resourcesat satellites.
  • Volumes: The Report is published in 2 volumes, 
    • Volume-I: It is a  national-level assessment with aspects like forest cover, mangrove cover, forest fires, growing stock, carbon stock, agroforestry, forest characteristics, and decadal changes
    • Volume-II: It offers detailed information on forest cover and field inventory data for each State/UT, including district and forest division-wise forest cover data.
  • Findings: 
    • Forest and Tree cover: It spans 827,357 square kilometers, covering 25.17% of the nation’s total land area.
      • This includes 715,343 square kilometers (21.76%) of forest cover and 112,014 square kilometers (3.41%) of tree cover. 
      • Growth in Forest Cover: The Forest cover overall has increased from 698,712 km² in 2013 to 715,343 km² in 2023. 
    • Forest Fire Incidents: It has decreased, with 203,544 fire hotspots recorded in 2023-24, down from 223,333 in 2021-22. 
    • Carbon Sink: The country has achieved a carbon sink of 30.43 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent representing an additional 2.29 billion tonnes of carbon sink in Forest and Tree Cover since 2005.

India's Green Recovery

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Legal Framework for Forest and Wildlife Protection

  • Constitutional Directive: Article 48A and 51A (g) of the Constitution underlines state’s and citizen’s duty to protect and improve the environment, including forests and wildlife. 
  • The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: This act is the mainstay of forest conservation in India as it prohibits hunting, protects wildlife habitats, and establishes protected areas. It also regulates the trade of wildlife parts and products, and manages zoos. 
  • The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: This act prohibits diversion of forest and its resources for any non forestry purposes without the central government’s approval
  • The Biological Diversity Act, 2002: This act aims to conserve biodiversity, use its components sustainably, and share the benefits of genetic resources fairly and equitably. 
  • State Forest Acts and Tree Preservation Acts: It caters to forest management specific to each state, while focusing on protecting trees in both urban and rural areas. 
    • Enforcement is the primary responsibility of State Governments and Union Territories.

Governmental Initiatives to Increase the Forest Cover

  • National Mission for a Green India (GIM): It was launched in 2014 with the aims to enhance India’s forest cover through protection, restoration, and expansion initiatives via Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs).
  • Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA): This scheme compensates for the loss of forest cover and ecosystem services caused by the diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes.
  • Nagar Van Yojana (NVY): The scheme focuses on developing green spaces in urban and peri-urban areas
  • Afforestation Targets under the Twenty-Point Programme: The Ministry sets annual afforestation targets for States/UTs, utilizing a mix of Central Government schemes, State Government plans, and efforts by NGOs, private organizations, and civil society.
  • Indian Forest Management Standard: This standard establishes criteria and frameworks for monitoring sustainable forest management and supports the Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme, particularly benefiting small-scale timber producers.
  • Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI): This five-year initiative (2023-2028) seeks to restore and promote mangroves along India’s coastline, enhancing coastal habitats’ sustainability.
  • National Action Plan on Forest Fire-2018: This plan provides measures to prevent forest fires, build resilience, and enhance community capacity for fire control and prevention.
  • Joint Forest Management and Eco Development Committees: It has promoted community involvement through Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) for better forest and wildlife protection, ensuring local participation in management and conservation activities
  • National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA):It aims for the conservation and management of wetlands in the country, on cost sharing basis between Central Government and respective State Governments
  • Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam: Launched by the Prime Minister on 5th June 2024, this campaign encourages citizens to plant trees in honor of mothers, fostering a deep connection between nature and nurturing.

Community Involvement For Nature Protection

India has a history and culture which puts great emphasis on the idea of ‘living in harmony’ with the nature, showcased in the lifestyle of various communities and individuals. 

  • Example: Padma Shri Tulsi Gowda, also known as the “Mother of Trees,” dedicated years of her life for planting and nurturing lakhs of trees in Karnataka, transforming barren land into lush forest.
  • Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves: These reserves provide a flexible system for wildlife conservation while also enhancing the socioeconomic circumstances of local populations
  • Chipko Movement: This movement in Uttarakhand’s Chamoli district successfully resisted deforestation and showed how community afforestation can be successful. 
  • Sacred groves: Examples include Ajeevali village in Maharashtra, where religious sentiments are associated with the groves. 

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  • Tribal Protection: The Bishnois community in Rajasthan is at the forefront for protecting wildlife as they believes in the sanctity of all life, shunning meat and avoiding felling living trees.
    • The community is actively involved in keeping watch over the poaching of wild animals and rescuing injured animals and often are a big support to the forest department.
  • Community participation in forest management: Tribal communities and villagers in India have traditionally protected forests because their survival depended on them. 
    • Example: The Khasis community of Meghalaya has indigenous active governance organisations at the local level  including multi-village governments (hima) and tribal village councils.
  • Agroecoforestry: The Apatanis community of Arunachal Pradesh has evolved a unique skill of rice-fish cultivation where along with paddy, fish is also reared on the fields further supplemented with millets reared on elevated partition bunds between the rice plots.
Additional Reading: About the ISFR 2023

The appointment of Indian origin Sriram Krishnan as senior policy adviser on Artificial Intelligence in the Donald Trump administration has reignited the political debate over skilled immigration in the United States.

  • Krishnan has previously advocated for the removal of country caps on green cards for skilled immigrants and is a supporter of Merit based immigration reforms.

About Immigration

  • Definition: Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not usual residents or where they do not possess nationality in order to settle as permanent residents
  • Immigration statistics of USA: In 2022, 2.6 million people legally immigrated to the United States making the country the home to one-fifth of the world’s international migrants.
  • Source: Mexico alone roughly contributes 23% of all U.S. immigrants followed by India (6%), China (5%), the Philippines (4%) and El Salvador (3%). 

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  • ImmigrationLegal Immigration System in USA: USA has two main visa categories,
    • Permanent Visas  or Immigrant Visas: Immigrants seeking permanent residence in the United States apply for a  Green Card, the informal term for lawful permanent resident (LPR) status
      • Categories: 58% of them were admitted on the basis of family reunification followed by employment-based preferences (27 percent), refugees (3 percent), diversity (4 percent), and asylees (5 percent)
      • They can apply for U.S. citizenship after five years, or three years if they marry a U.S. citizen.
    • Temporary/ Nonimmigrant visas: The United States admits workers, foreign students, and exchange visitors annually for temporary residence through a broad swath of visa categories, assigned letters of the alphabet from A through V. 

The H-1B Visa

  • It  is for “specialty occupations” that require “a high level of skill” and at least a bachelor’s degree  for a maximum of 6 years or longer if they are in line for a green card. It is presently capped at 65,000 H-1B visas per year
    • As per the US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), Indians accounted for 72.3% (2.79 lakh of a total of 3.86 lakh) H-1B visa holders in 2023.

Green Card

  • A green card is a document issued by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services that shows a person’s permanent residency in the United States. 
    • It includes the holder’s biographic information, photo, fingerprint, and expiration date
  • Benefits: A green card allows the holder to live and work in the United States indefinitely, and provides a pathway to U.S. citizenship after a specified period. 
  • Apply: 
    • An employer-sponsored green card application 
    • A self-sponsored employment-based green card application 
    • Marriage to a U.S. citizen 
    • Sponsorship by a close relative who is a U.S. citizen or legal permanent resident 
  • Expiry: The card is valid upto 10 years and has to be renewed. 
    • The green card holder’s status as “lawful permanent resident” is still valid unless the status is abandoned or revoked by U.S. government. 

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  • Debate For Immigration: 
    • Attracting Global Talent: America’s technological and economic dominance depends on its ability to recruit the best minds worldwide
    • Dearth of Domestic High Skilled Workforce: The United States produces too few highly skilled graduates and attracting elite engineering talent from abroad was essential for America to keep winning as per Elon Musk.
  • Debate Against Immigration: 
    • Job Displacement Concerns: The sheer dominance of Indian H-1B visa holders, a majority of whom work in computer-related occupations has sparked fears of Indians taking over high skilled American jobs displacing them. 
    • The White Middle Class: The concern that the American Middle Class is following the path of the American Working Class  which is ailed by high unemployment, low wages, inflation, a housing crisis, and others as they were replaced by Mexican immigrants.
    • Depress Wages in the US: The tech companies are merely using the H1B visa program as a means to cut costs as immigrant workers are cheaper. 

M-sand

Context: Rajasthan has launched the M-Sand Policy 2024 to promote sustainable construction and infrastructure.

What is M – sand?

  • M-Sand refers to Manufactured Sand
  • It is an Artificial sand produced by crushing hard stones using a VSI (Vertical Shaft Impact) machine.
    • It was Developed to address the shortage of natural river sand for construction purposes.
  • Initially introduced in Tamil Nadu and Kerala to meet increasing construction demands and reduce environmental impact.

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Benefits of Manufactured Sand (M-Sand)

  • Cost-Effective: Lower production costs make M-Sand more affordable than natural sand.
  • Quality Consistency: Uniform grain size and shape make it ideal for construction projects.
  • Environmental Benefits: Reduces dependency on natural sand mining, protecting ecosystems.
    • Reuses overburden from coal mines, converting waste into usable material.
  • Reduced Water Consumption: Does not require washing which saves water during construction.
  • Enhanced Mine Safety: Useful for sand stowing in underground mines, improving safety and conservation.
  • Reduction in River Sand Extraction:
    • Prevents riverbed erosion.
    • Protects aquatic habitats and maintains ecological balance.

M-sand

Fighter Jets Generation

Context: Unconfirmed images of a Chinese sixth-generation fighter jet are circulating online.

  • Baidi White Emperor ‘B Type Fighter Jet’: In November, China’s Aviation Industry Corporation (AVIC) showcased its sixth-generation fighter jet concept at the Zhuhai Airshow 2024.

What Are Fighter Jets?

  • Fighter Jets are advanced military aircraft designed for air-to-air combat and air-to-ground attacks.
  • Their primary role is to dominate the skies by engaging enemy aircraft, protecting airspace, and supporting ground forces.

First to Fifth Generations

  • First Generation (1940s-1950s): Early jet engines, subsonic speeds, and basic radar systems. Examples – Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15
  • Second Generation (1950s-1960s): Supersonic speeds, radar-guided missiles, and improved maneuverability. Examples – Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and MiG-21. 
  • Third Generation (1960s-1970s): Multi-role aircraft with better avionics and enhanced firepower. Examples-  MiG-23, Hawker Siddeley Harrier, and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom. 
  • Fourth Generation (1970s-1990s): Advanced radars, fly-by-wire controls, and focus on agility and stealth. Examples – MiG-29 (Russia), Tejas MK-1 (India). 
  • Fifth Generation (2000s-Present):
    • Features: Stealth technology, advanced avionics, integrated sensors, and data fusion.
    • Examples: F-22 Raptor (USA), Chengdu J-20 (China).

Sixth Generation (Future)

  • Hypothetical Features:
    • Artificial intelligence (AI) integration.
    • Network-centric warfare capabilities.
    • Hypersonic weapons.
    • Enhanced stealth with adaptive materials.

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What Does “Generation” Mean in Fighter Aircraft?

  • Fighter jet “generations” refer to different stages of technological advancement and design improvements over time.

 

Plantation History of Coffee Tree at Idukki Church

Context: The article focuses on the Historic Coffee Plant at CSI Church, Pallikkunnu.

About Coffee plantation in Idukki

  • Location: Near Kuttikkanam in Idukki district.
  • The British planted coffee on the church grounds over 150 years ago during the early plantation period in Peerumade.
  • Historical Context of Coffee Plantations in Idukki
    • Early Industry: Initially, coffee plants were the primary crop in Idukki.
    • Shift to Tea: In 1875, a leaf disease damaged coffee plants, leading planters to switch to tea cultivation.
    • Significant Yield: Thengakal near Peerumade achieved the highest coffee yield in southern India, producing two tonnes of cured coffee per acre.

 

Exercise Surya Kiran

Context: A contingent of 334 Indian Army personnel has departed for Nepal to participate in the 18th edition of the Battalion-Level Joint Military Exercise SURYA KIRAN.

  • The exercise will take place in Saljhandi, Nepal, from 31st December 2024 to 13th January 2025.

About Exercise Surya Kiran

  • Nature of Exercise: A joint military exercise between the Indian Army and the Nepal Army.
  • Frequency: Conducted annually and hosted alternately by both countries.
  • Objective:
    • To enhance interoperability in jungle warfare and counter-terrorism operations in mountainous terrains.
    • To conduct Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) under the framework of the United Nations Charter.

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About Humanitarian Assistance Disaster Relief (HADR)

  • HADR is a critical response to emergencies like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods) or conflicts.
  • Established in the aftermath of World War II, its primary objective is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity during and after crises.
  • HADR encompasses a wide range of activities, including providing food, water, shelter, medical care, and protection to those affected.

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