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The Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance has prepared a draft ‘Indian Stamp Bill, 2023’  to repeal the Indian Stamp Act, 1899 for the stamp duty regime in the country. 

Key Highlights of  Draft ‘Indian Stamp Bill, 2023 

• E-stamping: The new law will equip India for a seamless digital era as it has a provision of e-stamping digitally. 
• Definition: The draft Indian Stamp Bill defines an electronic stamp or e-stamp as an electronically generated impression denoting the payment of stamp duty by electronic means or otherwise.

Indian Stamp Act, 1899

• Objective: It lays down the legal provisions for tax levied in the form of stamps on instruments recording transactions. 
  • It covers Stamp duties on instruments specified in Entry 91 of the Union List.
• Need for Reform: The Law Commission in its 67th report submitted in 1976 made extensive recommendations for reforms. 

Also Refer: Provisions of the new Post Office Bill (2023)

News Source: Indian Express

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The Prime Minister fed cows of the Punganur breed of Andhra Pradesh on the occasion of Pongal/ Makar Sankranti.

About Punganur Cow Breed 

• Indigenous Breed: The Punganur cow is an indigenous breed native to the Punganoor, Vayalapadu, Madanapalli, and Palamaneer talukas of Chittoor district in the Rayalaseema region of southern Andhra Pradesh. 

Punganur Dwarf Cows

• Smallest Breed: It is considered to be the world’s smallest humped cattle. 
• Population Data: According to the  20th Livestock Census conducted in 2019, the total number of Punganur was recorded at 13,275, which included 9,876 pure and 3,399 graded heads of cattle.
• Highest Population States in Pure Breed Category: Andhra Pradesh (8,806), followed by Telangana (977), Karnataka (66), Kerala (15), Maharashtra (6), and Tamil Nadu (6). 
• Highest Population States in the graded category:  Andhra Pradesh (2,725), followed by Telangana (399), Karnataka (351), Tamil Nadu (10), and Kerala (4).

Conservation Efforts For Punganur Cows

• Financial Support: The Andhra Pradesh government has provided financial support through its budget for the promotion of the Punganur cow breed.
  • The Centre has sanctioned funds for the establishment of Gokul Gram at the P V Narasimha Rao Telangana Veterinary University, Hyderabad for the promotion of Punganur and other indigenous breeds of cattle in Telangana.
• National Kamdhenu Breeding Centre (NKBC): The NKBC for the southern region has been established at Chintaladevi, Nellore, in Andhra Pradesh.

News Source: Indian Express

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The Supreme Court has directed the authorities to be “conscious that no incitement to violence and hate speech are permissible”.

What is Hate Speech?

• According to the 267th Report of the Law Commission of India, hate speech is stated as an incitement to hatred primarily against a group of persons defined in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief and the like.
• Impact: It poses grave dangers like communal violence, loss of human rights, rule of law and cohesion in a democratic society.

Legal Provisions of Hate Speech

• Definition: There is no definition of Hate Speech in any law in India. However, legal provisions in certain legislations prohibit select forms of speech as an exception to freedom of speech.
• Indian Penal Code (IPC) Provisions:
  • Under Section 153A of IPC, ‘promotion of enmity between different groups on religion, race, place of birth, residence, language, etc., is an offense punishable with three years’ imprisonment.
  • Section 505 of IPC makes it an offense to make “statements conducing to public mischief.”
• Representation of the People Act, 1951:
  • Section 8 provides grounds for disqualification from contesting an election if s/he is convicted of inciting violence through freedom of speech and expression.
• Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955:
  • Section 7 penalizes incitement to, and encouragement of untouchability through words, either spoken or written or by signs or by visible representations or otherwise.

Freedom of Speech vs Hate Speech

• Constitution: Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and expression to all citizens of India. However, this right is not absolute.
• Reasonable Restriction: Article 19(2) provides certain restrictions, including  defamation or incitement to an offense. This forms the bedrock against Hate Speech. 

Important Judgements Related to Hate Speech

• Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India (2014): The court acknowledged the growing problem of hate speech but didn’t explicitly criminalize it, urging the Law Commission to consider specific legislation.
• Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on online hate speech, striking down Section 66A of the Information Technology Act which allowed authorities to block online content deemed “grossly offensive or harassing.”
• In Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India(2014), the Supreme Court held that the implementation of existing laws would solve the problem of hate speech to a great extent.

Challenges to Hate speech

• Defining hate speech: There is no universally accepted definition of hate speech, and it has not been defined in any law, making it difficult to punish the accused and establish guidelines about what hate speech Is?. 
• Balancing the right to speech and hate speech: Hate speech laws are often viewed as a restriction on free speech. This can lead to legal challenges and pushback from civil liberties groups.
• Social Media-based hate speech: Most hate speech occurs through social media behind anonymous accounts. This adds to the struggle to identify and remove the content. 
• Multilingual Country: It can be difficult to identify and remove hate speech in local languages in platforms that majorly support only English. Those trying to moderate content may not understand the cultural and linguistic nuances.
• Activities by Political Leaders: Political leaders like Trump have made many hate speeches online, however, they are not held accountable due to their popularity. There is a similar trend in India. 
• Lack of resources and legal framework: India lacks the resources and legal framework to address hate speech effectively. This makes it difficult to enforce laws and regulations. 

Way Ahead

• Education and Awareness: In a multilingual country like India, hate speech can incite violence and riots (eg- Nuh Violence due to Hate Speech). Awareness through online channels is essential to address the spread of hate speech. 
• Collaboration: It is a complex and multifaceted issue that poses significant challenges for regulators and policymakers which will require a multifaceted approach that includes education, technology, and legal enforcement.
• Strengthen implementation of existing laws: Police should be trained to address mob violence based on hate speech. Other measures like media literacy, dialogue, self-regulation, and civil society engagement should complement this.
• Establish and enforce codes of conduct: For legislators to hold lawmakers and political parties accountable for hate speech, and promote media ethics to discourage its dissemination.

News Source: The Hindu

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The Union Minister launched the project of depositing artificial reefs in the seabed in Vizhinjam, Thiruvananthapuram to boost the fish population.

Project for Artificial Reefs

• Phase I  of a nationwide campaign is launched in Kerala whereby  6,300 artificial reefs will be laid in 42 fishing villages from Pozhiyur to Varkala in Thiruvananthapuram district.
• Kerala State Coastal Area Development Corporation will implement the project with technical assistance from the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

About the Artificial Reef Campaign

• About: To deploy artificial reefs in a total of 3,477 fishing villages in the country to promote sustainable fisheries and livelihood
• Aim: To create an artificial habitat on the seafloor, creating favorable conditions for fish breeding and their sustainable survival.
• Nodal Agency:  Union Department of Fisheries 
• Implementing Partners: A joint initiative of the Central and State governments the project is being implemented under Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana with technical assistance being provided by The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 
• Budget: It is a Centrally Sponsored Project with  total cost  of  13.02 crore, with  60% being provided by the Central Government and 40%  by the State government. 

Artificial  Reef Technology

• About:  Artificial reefs are sheltered human-built structures placed on the seabed as a substitute for natural habitats. With a fixed scientific design, it functions as a self-sustaining production system on the seabed.
• Deployment: CMFRI has deployed the Technology in 132 locations with a total area of 3.7 lakh square meters across the country,  in the coastal waters of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, and Kerala on an experimental basis.  
• Outcome: 
• • Enhanced fish availability to small-scale fishers at lower operation costs
  • 17% to 30% increase in fisheries was observed from locations where the reefs were already deployed.
  • It will discourage bottom trawling in the near shore areas, helping the marine environment regenerate and small-scale fishers get a higher catch.
  • Over  300 species coexist in a settled artificial reef habitat. The commercial varieties being attracted to the reef include breams, cobia, sea bass, rabbit fish,  mackerel, trevallies, and queen fish etc

Additional Information: Artificial Reef (AR) 

News source: News on AIR

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Scientists are finding that ‘Gut Microbiota may be linked to heart health, some cancers, and even the color of urine.

• In 2012, an international consortium of scientists launched the Human Microbiome Project that provided the first glimpses into the human body’s complex microbial makeup using genome sequencing.

About Human Microbiomes

• The human microbiome is a community of trillions of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi archaea, protists and viruses) that live in our body, especially in the digestive tract.
  • These microbes change in response to the environment, diseases and human diets.
  • It is a dynamic community that plays a pivotal role in regulating our health and diseases.

Importance of Human Microbiomes

• These microorganisms are dynamic  and play a pivotal role in regulating human health and diseases including the way humans digest food, absorb nutrients, develop immunity, etc. 
  • For example: Autoimmune diseases such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, and fibromyalgia are associated with dysfunction in the microbiome.
• Microbiota stimulate the immune system, break down potentially toxic food compounds, and synthesize certain vitamins and amino acids, including the B vitamins and vitamin K. 
  • For example, the key enzymes needed to form vitamin B12 are only found in bacteria, not in plants and animals. 

About Probiotics

• Probiotics are foods or supplements that contain live microorganisms intended to maintain or improve the “good” bacteria (normal microflora) in the body. 
• These are foods (typically high-fiber foods) that act as food for human microflora. Prebiotics are used with the intention of improving the balance of these microorganisms.

Gut Microbes & Diseases

• Cardiometabolic Traits: Researchers identified a link between genetic variants in the ABO blood group and microbial genes involved in metabolizing N-acetylgalactosamine (an amino-sugar).
  • This link provides a significance in identification of cardiometabolic traits, including lipid levels and blocks in blood vessels and risk of severe COVID-19 infections.
• Colorectal Cancer: Recently, researchers found that the development of colorectal cancer could be mediated by administering a molecule called trans-3-indoleacrylic acid (IDA) or implanting the microbe Peptostreptococcus anaerobius.
  • The effects of IDA could be abolished by deleting two human genes – AHR or ALDH1A3.
• Neuronal Signaling: Gut microbes produce vitamin B12, which could influence neuronal signaling by influencing the availability of free choline.
  • Choline is a molecule that neurons use to make a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.
• Jaundice: The human microbiome could be involved in the metabolism of urobilinogen. A bacterial enzyme, bilirubin reductase (BilR), is responsible for reducing bilirubin to urobilinogen.
  • The yellow color of urine comes from a pigment called urobilinogen.

News Source: The Hindu

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Scientists at the University of Oxford U.K. have launched first-in-human Nipah Virus Vaccine trials for the Nipah virus disease.

Nipah Virus Vaccine: ChAdOx1 NipahB 

• Nipah Virus Vaccine Name: ChAdOx1 NipahB vaccine.
• The vaccine uses the ChAdOx1 platform, the same that was used for the Oxford/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine.
• Trail: It will consist of 51 people aged 18 to 55, for a period of the next 18 months, led by the Oxford Vaccine Group.

About Nipah Virus

• About: It belongs to a  family of paramyxoviruses.
• First  identified: In 1998 in Malaysia and Singapore in an outbreak among pig farmers.
• Carriers:  Fruit bats of the family Pteropodidae acts as a natural host of the virus.

Transmission of Nipah Virus 

• Outbreaks: Outbreaks have occurred in countries in Asia, including Singapore, Malaysia, Bangladesh and India with Kerala seeing annual outbreaks. Nature of Transmission:
  • It is zoonotic in nature  ( transmitted from animals to humans)

• • Unprotected  exposure to secretions or tissues of a sick animal (Eg: Malaysia)
  • Consumption  of fruits or fruit products (such as raw date palm juice) contaminated with urine or saliva from infected fruit bats was the most likely source of infection ( Example: cases in Kerala) 
• Human-to-human transmission of Nipah virus has also been reported among family and caregivers of infected patients. (Example: Siliguri, India in 2001,  75% of cases occurred among hospital staff or visitors.)
• Infection: Human infections range from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory infection (mild, severe), and fatal encephalitis progressing to coma within 24 to 48 hours. 
  • The incubation period (interval from infection to the onset of symptoms) is believed to range from 4 to 14 days.
• Diagnosis:  The main tests used are real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from bodily fluids and antibody detection via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). 
• Treatment: There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for Nipah virus infection.
• WHO Status: WHO has identified Nipah as a priority disease for the WHO Research and Development Blueprint saying it has pandemic potential.

Also Refer: 

• GEMCOVACOM: India’s First MRNA Vaccine
• World’s First Vaccine For Chikungunya Approved

News Source: The Hindu

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The Indian government has introduced the Electricity Amendment Rules 2024 under Section 176 of the Electricity Act 2003.  

• This amendment aims to simplify business processes for starting captive power, energy storage, and green hydrogen projects.

Provisions of the New Electricity Amendment Rules 2024

• Setting Up Transmission Line: The new rules allow certain captive generators and bulk consumers to set up dedicated transmission lines without a license.
• Tarrifs: The rule specifically targets and handles issues related to wheeling charges, state transmission charges, and additional surcharges.
• The recently revised regulations also encompass consumers with a minimum load of 10 kilowatts for transmission systems within the same state.

• Open Access: There is provision for Linear reduction and elimination of additional surcharge for those availing General Network Access or Open Access within four years.
• Individuals never served by a distribution licensee are exempt from the additional surcharge.
• Tariffs are mandated to be cost reflective.
• No gap is allowed between approved annual revenue requirements and estimated annual revenue, except under natural calamity conditions.
  • Maximum allowable gap in such cases is 3% of the approved Annual Revenue Requirement.

Benefits of the New Electricity Amendment Rules 2024

• Affordable Electricity: This provision will help bulk consumers by giving them access to affordable electricity and enhanced grid reliability.
• Boost for High-Energy Consumers and Storage Systems: The exclusion of licensing obligations for dedicated transmission lines, specifically for entities with substantial energy demands or energy storage systems, incentivizes investments in renewable energy projects.
  • This could lead to faster grid integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind power.
• Streamlining Procedures: Simplifying the procedure for setting up dedicated transmission lines reduces administrative obstacles for both major consumers and developers in the renewable energy sector.
• • This process can help attract investments and increase the implementation of projects.

Drawbacks of the New Electricity Amendment Rules 2024

• Possibility of Market Manipulation: Exemption of licensing dedicated transmission lines to large consumers could create opportunities for market manipulation and unfair competition.
• Impact on State Transmission Utilities: Capping charges for short-term open access can diminish revenue for state transmission utilities.
  • This reduction in income may affect their capacity to maintain and enhance infrastructure, leading to long-term grid reliability and efficiency challenges.

Also Refer: National Green Hydrogen Mission

News Source: Economic Times

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Recently, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has launched “Centre of Excellence in Intelligent Internet of Things Sensors” and “India Innovation Centre for Graphene ” in Kerala. 

About the Centre of Excellence in Intelligent Internet of Things Sensors

• Establishment: It is a unique facility established at Makers Village Kochi by MeitY, Govt. of India (GoI) and Govt. of Kerala.
• Aim: To catalyze the development of sensors within the realm of Intelligent IoT systems covering a broad spectrum of applications of intelligent sensors in networks, devices and sensor systems. 

About India Innovation Centre for Graphene (IICG): India’s first Graphene Center

• Aim: To foster R&D, product innovation and capacity building in Graphene and 2D material systems. 
• Technical Partners: Digital University Kerala (DUK) and Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (CMET)-Thrissur. 

About Graphene

• It is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms that forms the building block of Graphite.
• Characteristics: It is the thinnest, most electrically and thermally conductive material globally.

Applications

• Food Packaging: Graphene polymers on food and drug packages will stop water and oxygen exchange for longer, keeping food and consumer goods fresher.
• Batteries: Using graphene, the useful life of batteries could be increased by 10, as well as charging in less time.
• Electricity: Graphene applied to electronic circuits would make devices ‘immune’ to dampness, one of the main causes of deterioration.
• Construction: The use of graphene applied to construction promises to improve the insulation of buildings.                                                                                                                                                         

News Source: PIB

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Recently, Iran launched a missile attack inside Pakistan’s Balochistan province, targeting the bases of the terrorist group Jaish al-Adl.

Iran-Pakistan Conflict: Why are Iran and Pakistan Striking Each Other’s Territory

• The Focal point of this operation was the region known as Kouh-Sabz (green mountain) in Balochistan, recognized as one of the largest hubs for the Jeysh al-Dhulm militants.

• India’s Response: India has an uncompromising position of zero tolerance towards terrorism and it understands actions that countries take in their self-defense.
• Pakistan’s Retaliatory Response: Pakistan air force launched the operation named “Marg Bar Sarmachar” in Iran’s Siestan-Balochistan province.

About Jaish Al Adl Terrorist Group

• Jaish al-Adl: It is a Sunni Salafist militant group with bases in Pakistan’s Balochistan province, active in the mountainous border regions of Pakistan and Iran. 
• Goal: It claims to be fighting for the independence of the Sistan and Baluchestan (known as Asli Balouchestan) province in the southeastern corner of Iran, bordering Pakistan’s Balochistan province and the Indian Ocean.

Continue To Read: Iran-Pakistan Crisis In Balochistan

News Source: Indian Express

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The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) titled ‘Beyond Basics’ based on a survey led by the Pratham Foundation has been released.

About ASER Report 2023

• Target Age Group: A household survey was conducted among rural students aged 14 to 18 years in 28 districts across 26 states to assess the foundational reading and arithmetic abilities of 34,745 students.
• Focused Domains in Survey: The survey was focused on the following domains: 
• Activities: Activities in which India’s youth are currently engaged. 
• Awareness and Digital Skills: Awareness of digital technologies and platforms among the youth.
• Educational and career pathways: Aspirations of Indian youth
• Ability to apply foundational skills to daily life situations: Basic and applied reading and math abilities among the youths.

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Key Highlights from the ASER Report 2023

• Status of Youth Activities: Across all enrolment categories, a higher proportion of females than males were doing household work daily. Overall, this difference is about 20 percentage points.
  • Among males and females, most youth working in activities other than household work tend to be working on family farms.
  • It was found that a higher percentage of males (40.3%) than females (28%) had done work other than household work for more than 15 days.
  • Around 30% of youth are working for their parents. 
• Aspirations: The survey shows that the two most popular choices among the boys and young men in the sample were army (13.8%) and police (13.6%).
  • Among the girls and young women surveyed, teacher (16%) and doctor (14.8%) were the most preferred choices.
• Age Gap in Enrollment: Overall, 86.8% of 14-18-year-olds are enrolled in an educational institution. Although the gender gaps in enrolment is small, there are prominent differences by age. 
  • The percentage of youth not enrolled is 3.9% for 14-year-old youth and is 32.6% for 18-year-olds.
• Choice of Streams: Most people in this age group were enrolled in the Arts/Humanities streams. 
  • In Class XI or higher, more than half are enrolled in the Arts/Humanities stream (55.7%) and females are less likely to be enrolled in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics stream (28.1%) than males (36.3%).
• Status Of Vocational Training: Only 5.6% of surveyed youth are taking vocational training or other related courses. 
• • The vocational training is most likely to be taken by the youth at the college level(16.2%). Moreover, most youth are taking short duration courses of six months or less.
• Assessment of Basic Skills and Literacy levels: About 25% of this age group cannot read a standard II-level text fluently in their regional language. 
  • Across enrollment categories, females (76%) do better than males (70.9%) in reading a Std II level text in their regional language.
  • English Reading Skills: Around 57.3% can read English sentences. Of those who can read in English, nearly three-quarters (73.5%) are able to understand the meaning of the sentences.
• Division Problems:  More than half among 14-18-year-old youth struggle with division (3-digit by 1-digit) problems wherein only 43.3% are able to do such problems correctly.
  •  In 2017, 39.5 percent of youth could do a superficial (grade 3-4 level) division problem, while in 2023, this proportion went up to 43.3%.
• Applying Foundational Skills to Daily Life: Two-thirds of the surveyed youths (65.1 per cent) were able to read functional instructions on a packet of ORS solution.
• Digital Divide in Smartphone Proficiency: About 90% of surveyed households had smartphones. Of the surveyed children, almost 95% boys and 90% girls could use a smartphone.
  • Among those who can use a smartphone, two-thirds reported using it for an education-related activity during the reference week, such as watching online videos related to studies, solving doubts, or exchanging notes. 

What Challenges Are Highlighted in the ASER Report 2023?

• No Improvement in Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Skills (FLN): There has been no significant change in student’s FLN.
  • According to the report, in 2017, 76.6 per cent of 14-18-olds could read a grade 2-level text, while in 2023, this number reduced to 73.6%.
  • Low levels of foundational numeracy affect the ability of youth in tackling everyday calculations where they need to apply measurement or use the unitary method in practical situations.
• Poor Quality Labourforce:  This deficit in foundational numeracy significantly impacts the quality of the country’s labour force. 
• Balancing Academics and Family Responsibilities: Most of the youths face compounded challenges as they need to balance academic requirements with responsibilities, such as working in family farms. These responsibilities impact the aspirations of youth. 
• Poor Utilisation of Smartphones for Education Purpose: The current use of smartphones for educational purposes is significantly lower than that for entertainment. 
  • Close to 80% reported using their smartphone for an entertainment-related activity, such as watching a movie or listening to music.
• Gender Disparity in Reading and Arithmetic Skills:  Males performed better than females in arithmetic and English reading across most of the tasks that test the ability to apply basic numeracy and reading skills.
  • For instance, only 41.1% females were able to tell the time compared to 51% males. Similarly, 88% males were able to measure length compared to 82% women.
• Gender Disparity in Digital Skills: Of those who can use a smartphone, 43.7% of males own smartphones as compared to 19.8% of females.
  • Across all phone-related tasks assigned to respondents, boys outperformed girls. 
  • Performance in digital tasks improved with education level. Ability to perform digital tasks also increased with basic reading proficiency.

Way Forward

• Reorienting Vocational Education: As highlighted in the report, youth are not prioritizing vocational skilling as only 5.6% are currently enrolled in vocational courses. 
  • This highlights the need for policymakers to rethink vocational education, aligning it with the aspirations outlined in the National Education Policy (NEP) to make it genuinely aspirational.
  • For this, secondary schools need to collaborate with Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), Polytechnics, Local Industry, etc. 
  • Skill labs should be set up and created in the schools in a Hub and Spoke model, which will allow other schools to use the facility. 
  • Higher education institutions should offer vocational education either on their own or in partnership with industry.
• Empowering Underprivileged Learners: The need is to enable the underprivileged to be able to study while working to earn a living. 
  • Open schooling and digital technology is a powerful combination. The open school and open university processes need to be decentralised and strengthened.
• Need for Non-Formal Education: There is a need for non-formal education to supplement the formal processes of education or fulfil other needs.
  • For example, agriculture, or broadly natural resource management, is a subject that is not offered in rural schools and colleges, at least on the scale it should be.
  • The ASER Report 2023 reveals that only 0.7% of rural students reported studying agriculture.
• Smartphone Usage and Education Opportunities: The ASER report identifies the widespread use of smartphones in rural areas as an opportunity to extend education. 
  • Thus, there is a need to encourage the use of digital technologies for learning.
• Tracking Digital Technology Usage and Promoting Constructive Use: The teachers and civil society need to play a role in creating awareness regarding the constructive use of digital technologies.
  • For this, digital literacy workshops can be organised for educating students on responsible online behavior, critical thinking skills, and responsible app usage.

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Conclusion

Thus, prudent reforms in technical and vocational education and training systems are needed to provide support to youths in building foundational literacy and numeracy skills which are essential for academic improvement as well as for meeting everyday needs. 

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This article is based on the news “Study finds high GHG emissions could turn continental shelves in Antarctic Marine Protected Areas severely acidic by 2100” which was published in the DownToEarth. A new study published in the Journal Nature Communications has raised concerns about the rising acidity levels of the continental shelves in Antarctic Marine Protected Areas (MPA).

GHG Emissions Could Turn Continental Shelves in Antarctic Marine Protected Areas Severely Acidic by 2100: Study

• Continental Shelves More Vulnerable: According to the study, continental shelves (shallow, underwater areas extending from the edge of continents) are expected to see more severe acidification than the open ocean. 
• Impact of CO2 Emission: In the case of the high and very high emissions scenarios, there will be a widespread lack of aragonite (a type of carbonate mineral) saturation in the proposed and established MPAs by the end of the century. 
  • This undersaturation implies that organisms such as pteropods that form aragonite won’t be able to find places with stable conditions for their shells.
  • MPAs: According to IUCN, it is any area of intertidal or sub-tidal terrain, together with its overlaying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.

• Projection of Acidification: The study projected that the pH scale could decline by up to 0.36 for the top 200  meters of the ocean by 2100. 
  • Before the 18th to 19th century Industrial Revolution, the ocean’s average pH was about 8.2. Today, the ocean’s average pH is 8.1. This means that the ocean today is about 30 per cent more acidic than in pre-industrial times. 
  • By 2100, the pH of the ocean could decrease to about 7.8, making the ocean 150 percent more acidic and affecting half of all marine life, according to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

About Ocean Acidification

• Ocean Acidification: It refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
• CO2 Absorption: The ocean absorbs about 30 percent of the CO2 released in the atmosphere increasing levels of Oceanic CO2 and acidification.
  • The ocean helps mitigate the effects of global warming by absorbing some of the carbon dioxide gas (CO2) released into the atmosphere. 
  • This comes at a cost to ocean health because the uptake of anthropogenic CO2 causes acidification, which can harm marine ecosystems.
• Ocean Acidification Process: When CO2 is absorbed by seawater, a series of chemical reactions occur resulting in the increased concentration of hydrogen ions.
  • Carbon dioxide dissolves into seawater and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), a weak acid that breaks into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
  • This increase in H+ causes the seawater to become more acidic and causes carbonate ions to be relatively less abundant.

What are the Causes of Ocean Acidification?

• Increasing Carbon dioxide Concentration in the Ocean: When sea organisms die on the sea beds, their remains pile up and form corals consisting of carbons. 
• Increasing Carbon dioxide Concentration in the Atmosphere: Human activities such as the burning of oil, coal, and gas, as well as deforestation, are the primary causes of the increased carbon dioxide concentrations. CO2 contaminates the water by lowering the water’s pH and contributing to acidification. 
• • According to the Global Carbon Budget 2022, since the middle of the 20th century, annual emissions from burning fossil fuels have increased every decade, from close to 11 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year in the 1960s to an estimated 36.6 billion tons in 2022.
• Higher Concentration of Hydrogen Ions in Water: At the sea beds, some chemical reactions may take place, which may increase the hydrogen ions, when combined with other compounds such as nitrogen and water, among other gases. 
• Emission Released During Burning Fossil Fuels: When burnt, petroleum, diesel, and coal produce lots of carbon dioxide, which finds a way into the water viz. through acidic rainfalls or even direct dissolving into the water. 
• Other Reasons: 
  • Lack of Proper Waste Disposal: Using oceans as possible dumping grounds for domestic and industrial wastes. This waste is very dangerous as it lowers the PH of the ocean water. 
  • Rapid Industrialization: Growing industrialisation translates into increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, which increases acidity when absorbed into the water.

Impact of Ocean Acidification on Oceanic Biodiversity

• Impact on Shell Builders: Carbonate ions are an important building block of structures such as sea shells and coral skeletons. 
  • Decreases in carbonate ions can make building and maintaining shells and other calcium carbonate structures difficult for calcifying organisms such as oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton. 
• Impacts on Fish and Seaweeds: The ability of some fish, like clownfish, to detect predators is decreased in more acidic waters. Studies have shown that decreased pH levels also affect the ability of larval clownfish to locate suitable habitat. 
  • While some species will be harmed by ocean acidification, algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean, as they require CO2 for photosynthesis just like plants on land. 
• Impact on Planktonic Ecosystems: The phytoplankton forms the basis of the marine ecosystems as it carries out photosynthesis and thus begins the chain of the marine ecosystems. So, if their photosynthesis faces a problem, the entire marine ecosystem suffers.
• Loss of Aquatic Life: Increased acidity leads to the disappearance or death of some organisms in the aquatic ecological environment. 

Other Consequences of Ocean Acidification

• Increase in Carbon Dioxide Concentration in Ocean: Ocean acidification changes the gaseous concentration in the ocean, particularly carbon dioxide. The carbon gas then reacts with water molecules, forming carbonic acid. 
  • Rainfalls increase the concentration of carbon, which can potentially lead to suffocation and death of marine creatures.
• Food Shortage: When fish die, humans who depend on them for food and livelihood are hit by socio-economic problems. 
  • For instance, according to CoastAdapt, by 2100, the global annual costs of mollusc loss from ocean acidification could be over US$100 billion for a business.
• Food Web Disruption: Ocean acidification leads to the death and disappearance of some plants and animals in the sea. When some organisms become extinct, their dependents are also threatened because they have nothing to feed on. 
• Tourism Decline: This industry could be severely affected by the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems. 
  • For example, increasing acidification may lead to a collapse of coral reefs. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park attracts about 1.9 million visits yearly, generating more than A$5.4 billion for the Australian economy. 

Initiatives to Curb Ocean Acidification

• Rio+ 20 Summit: The United Nations Conference for sustainable development in 2012 stressed ocean acidification as a threat for the marine environment. 
  • The outcome document ‘the future we want’ highlighted the critical role the oceans play in all three pillars of sustainable development, and committment to protect, and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems. 
• UNESCO IOC: The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO is the custodian agency for SDG 14 Target 3, which is to minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification. 
  • Through its role in supporting the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network (GOA-ON), the IOC helps the Member States to coordinate the resources from different countries and organizations needed to understand and tackle the problem of ocean acidification.
• International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP): The IOCCP collaborates with the GOA-ON and other institutions to enhance the capability to observe and predict present-day and future responses of ecosystem processes, biogeochemistry, and climate change feedbacks.
• IAEA OC-ICC: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) established the Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC) in 2012 to focus on science, capacity building, outreach and communication about the status and trends of ocean acidification, promoting science-based decision making.

Way Forward

• Enhance Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): MPAs have been established at the South Orkney Islands Southern Shelf and in the Ross Sea region, with three additional MPAs proposed in the Weddell Sea, East Antarctica and along the western Antarctic Peninsula. 
  • If realized, this network of MPAs would protect around 60 percent of Antarctic shelf waters and India will continue to support setting up two MPAs in Antarctica to protect marine life and its ecosystem services, 
• Continued Scientific Cooperation: Support and participate in international initiatives, such as the GOA-ON, to coordinate efforts in understanding and combating ocean acidification on a global scale.
  • Further increase collaboration with organisations like the IOC of UNESCO and the  IAEA to share knowledge and resources.
• Sustainable Fishing Practices: Encourage and enforce sustainable fishing practices to maintain balanced marine ecosystems and prevent the collapse of fisheries. 
  • Supporting the development and implementation of aquaculture practices that are resilient to changing ocean conditions, as increased acidity would make fish consumption a risky affair.
• Reducing the Consumption of Carbon-oriented Energy Sources: Carbon emitted from fossil fuels can be reduced by minimizing the use of such fuels. 
  • Thus there is a need for increasing adoption of the use of renewable energy sources, diversification of energy sources, such as solar and wind as alternative energy sources. 
• Raise Awareness: Increase public awareness about the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems, emphasizing the importance of sustainable practices and reducing carbon footprints. 

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