Context

Recently, the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) issued an advisory on the heatwaves and revealed a terrific image of rising heat wave conditions in multiple areas — from Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh to the western parts of Madhya Pradesh.

IMD Alert On Heat Waves in India 

• The IMD warned that heatwave spells could last 10-20 days, instead of four to eight days.
• In 2022, the country experienced its hottest March since 1901.

Time for Heat Action Plans (HAPs)

• Began: In May 2010, a heat wave claimed more than 800 lives in Ahmedabad, which pushed the city’s municipality to partner with the Indian Institute of Public Health and American academies to develop the country’s first heat action plan (HAP) in 2013. 
• About: Heat Action Plans (HAPs) are India’s primary policy response to economically damaging and life threatening heat waves. 
• Aim: To decrease the impact of heatwaves, HAPs prescribe a variety of preparatory activities, disaster responses, and post-heatwave response measures across state, district, and city government departments.
• Focus: 
  • Creating an early warning system
  • Increasing the capacity of healthcare professionals
  • Promoting adaptive measures in workplaces and creating awareness 

Challenges with Heat Action Plans (HAPs)

• Fail to Identify Targets: 

  • Nearly all Heat Action Plans (HAPs) fail to identify and target vulnerable groups.
    • Only two HAPs carry out and present vulnerability assessments (systematic studies to locate where the people most likely to be affected are in a city, district, or state). 

• No Focus on Vulnerables: 

  • While most HAPs list broad categories of vulnerable groups (elderly, outdoor workers, pregnant women), the list of solutions they propose do not necessarily focus on these groups.

• Underfunding: 

• • As per a report of the Centre for Policy Research (CPR), HAPs are underfunded and only three of 37 HAPs identify funding sources while eight HAPs ask implementing departments to self-allocate resources, “indicating a serious funding constraint”.

• Not Requirement Specific: 

  • Most HAPs adopt national heatwave thresholds that may not be suited to the risks faced by local populations and there is no climate projection.
    • HAPs across the country generally focus on dry extreme heat and ignore the threats posed by humid heat and warm nights. 
    • As per a report of the CPR, Only 10 out of 37 HAPs seem to have locally specified temperature thresholds. 

• Weak Legal Foundations & Accountability: 

• • The CPR further finds that the HAPs have weak legal foundations. None of the HAPs reviewed indicate the legal sources of their authority. 
    • This reduces bureaucratic incentives to prioritise and comply with HAPs instructions. 
    • There is no national repository of HAPs and very few HAPs are listed online. 
    • It is also unclear whether these HAPs are being updated periodically and whether this is based on evaluation data.

Way Forward

• National Joint Actions: These are must for heat mitigation are necessary to ensure the safety of lives and livelihoods amid extreme weather conditions.
• Follow a Sustainable Approach: As per experts, the primary objective should be a sustainable and equal future. 
• Need for Climate Projections: It could help to identify future planning needs and combat the threat of intensifying heat waves.
• Work on Missing Areas: India has made considerable progress by creating several dozen heat action plans in the last decade, but India needs to work on the findings of loopholes, revealed by the CPR to eliminate the damaging social and economic losses due to frequent and intense heat waves. 
• Accountability and Transparency: There is a need for an online national repository that should be periodically updated and in accordance with region-specific needs.
  • Bureaucratics need incentives to prioritise and comply with HAPs instructions.
• Adequate Funding: HAPs need to be funded adequately to implement the required and desired actions.

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Context

Zakariyapura village in Anand district, Gujarat has become a model for other villages across India by embracing small-scale biogas facilities in every household that owns milch cattle. 

What is a Climate Smart Model Village?

• Tackling Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change: The Climate Smart Village approach, pioneered by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) aims to address the effects of climate change on agriculture. 
• Key Approach: It is an institutional approach to test, implement, modify and promote Climate smart agriculture locally and enhance farmers‟ abilities to adapt to climate change.It includes following main features:
  • Create a new revenue stream for rural communities by helping them grow  and implement holistic interventions to promote gender equality
  • Diversify farmers’ livelihood and add more nutrients to diets
  • Sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes.
  • Reduce and/or remove greenhouse gases emissions, where possible
  • Advance progress towards the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Key Features of Zakariyapura Village

• Equipped with Flexi Biogas plants: With the assistance of National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), all 368 households with livestock were equipped with flexi biogas plants of 2 cubic metres capacity. 
• Revenue: The monthly revenue from slurry sales typically ranges from Rs 1,500-2,500. In total, the biogas system helps households save between Rs 3,500 and Rs 4,500 per month. 
• Geotagging of Biogas Plants: All 368 biogas plants have been geotagged and two villagers from the local community have been trained to address any immediate operational problem. 
• Training Sessions: A series of training sessions to educate local women on plant operation, maintenance and the potential economic and environmental advantages. 
• Centralised slurry processing centre: It established a centralised slurry processing centre. 
• Transparent slurry procurement system: To ensure fairness, a transparent slurry procurement system was implemented similar to that of milk, where women farmers are compensated based on the quality of slurry supplied.
  • This was assessed using predefined rate charts based on dissolved solids and electrical conductivity measurements. 
• Slurry applicator: NDDB has developed a slurry applicator with a 3,500 litre capacity for efficient collection from these plants. 
  • Payments for slurry sales are deposited directly into the individual beneficiaries’ bank accounts.
• Dewatering machine: The centralised slurry processing facility in Vasna near Borsad town has deployed a dewatering machine to separate the slurry into liquid and solid components. 
  • These components are then enriched and transformed into useful biofertilisers such as phosphate-rich organic manure, micronutrient-rich liquid and others. 

• Utilising SuDhan trademark: NDDB has granted the cooperative the rights to utilise the SuDhan trademark for marketing fertiliser products under the SuDhan brand. 
• Validation of Slurry Effectiveness: The effectiveness of the slurry was validated through research conducted at the Anand Agricultural University in Gujarat. 
• Potential Catalyst for white revolution: The initiative in Anand, known as the dairy hub of India, can serve as the catalyst for another ‘white revolution’, focusing on the utilisation of animal waste rather than solely milk. 
  • Building on the success of this model, NDDB has planned to replicate it in 11 other locations across India. 

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Context

The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department finds that the Indian laurel tree stores water in summer as claimed by the Konda Reddi tribe.

Tribal Group Helps AP Forest Department to Find Water in Trees

• The Forest Department authorities cut the bark of an Indian laurel tree (Terminalia tomentosa) found in the Papikonda National Park in the Alluri Sitharama Raju district to find out the trees ability to store water in the summer.
• The experiment was conducted as part of a regular visit to ascertain the Konda Reddi’s tribe indigenous knowledge about the tree.

Key Findings

• Water Quality: The Indian laurel tree stores water in its trunk during summers. The water stored has a strong smell and tastes sour and has an orange-yellowish appearance  due to dissolved phytochemicals  but is of potable quality.
  • A fully grown tree can store at least four to six litres of water and acts as a reservoir for the locals. 
•  The frequency and amount of water storage is girth-dependent and depends on the  thickness of the trunk. 
  • Only about  five to 10 percent of the population of Terminalia tomentosa have been observed to store water in the stem.
• Unique Feature: The water storing trees develops a lateral ridge that is two to three feet long, and half a foot thick on their trunk, five to 10 feet above the ground.
  • This lateral ridge, known as wing, indicates the presence of water in the stem.
• Adaptation Strategy:  
  • Large trees may experience a significant lag period between transpiration and sap water flow from the stem base in summers.
  • Certain Terminalia tomentosa members stores water in their  internal water storage compartments (sapwood, cell walls, and intercellular spaces) to compensate for the cavitation and embolism (formation of gas bubbles in xylem vessels) resulting from high transpiration and to maintain an effective hydraulic functionality. 

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The Steel Ministry has initiated efforts to develop a thorough green steel policy to reduce carbon emissions. 

• This policy will include defining the production processes, necessary skills, funding availability, and other pertinent aspects.

What is Green Steel?

• Green steel is steel manufactured through eco-friendly and sustainable practices.
• It’s done by using energy from renewable sources, creating less carbon dioxide, and managing waste better.
• Its manufacturing uses no fossil fuel. 
• Objective: To make steel production more eco-friendly and lessen its impact on the climate.

Techniques to Reduce Carbon Footprints

• Carbon-based materials: Carbon footprints can be decreased by using less carbon-based materials and recycling more steel.
• Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is a solution that emits only water when it’s burned.
• • It’s produced by using water and renewable electricity.
    • This process is called electrolysis.
• Green hydrogen offers a clean and sustainable alternative for various industries, including steel manufacturing.
• Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is another option that’s low in carbon emissions.
  • It’s produced using fossil fuels, but with a technology called carbon capture.
• This technology helps capture and store the carbon emissions, making blue hydrogen cleaner than traditional fossil fuels.
• Blue hydrogen serves as a transitional solution towards cleaner energy sources.
• Electric arc furnaces: Electric arc furnaces are also used, but they’re not always powered by renewable energy, so the steel they make might not be completely green.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Green Steel

Steps Taken for Green Steel Making in India

• 13 task forces: Thirteen task forces were previously established to address various modalities of green steel-making.
• 14 task forces: Recently, a fourteenth task force was formed to investigate the use of biochar or biomass as alternatives in blast furnace operations to reduce carbon emissions.
• Pilot Projects and Hydrogen-based Technology
• • Pure-hydrogen- DRI: India is exploring its own pure-hydrogen-based Direct Reduction of Iron (DRI) technology.
    • A consortium-led pilot project for a hydrogen-based DRI facility is also being explored.
  • Collaboration: The proposed pilot plant involves collaboration between integrated steel players, secondary players, and the Council for Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) Lab.
  • Use of hydrogen: Industrial-scale hydrogen-iron making, known as Direct Reduction of Iron (DRI), uses hydrogen instead of high carbon-emitting fossil fuels, with water as the waste product.

Overview of Indian Steel Sector

• This industry is a deregulated sector. 
• Categorisation: The Indian steel industry is categorized into major, main, and secondary producers.
• Production Statistics
  • India ranks as the world’s second-largest crude steel producer, with 125.32 MT output in FY23.
  • Finished steel production stood at 121.29 MT during the same period.
• Key Drivers of growth
  • Raw Materials (Availability of iron ore): India has rich reserves of iron ore, a key ingredient in steel production. T
  • Cost-effective labor: India has a large workforce, and the steel industry can benefit from a readily available pool of skilled and unskilled labor. 
    • The steel industry significantly contributes to India’s overall manufacturing output.

Status of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Steel Sector

• India’s domestic sector contribution: Official data shows that India’s domestic steel sector contributes 12% to the country’s greenhouse gas emissions.
• Intensity of Emission: The emission intensity is around 2.55 tonnes of CO2 per tonne of crude steel, higher than the global average of 1.9 tonnes.

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Context

Daniel Kahneman, one of the pioneers of psychology and economics research recently passed away.

Daniel Kahneman

• About Kahneman: Daniel Kahneman was a psychologist who did some of his best known work with Amos Tversky, a mathematical psychologist who passed away in 1996.
• Research Papers: They published a series of pioneering research papers in the 1980s that integrated insights from psychology and economics to better understand human behaviour.
• Behavioural economics: Together, they form the bedrock of the contemporary field of behavioural economics.

• Legacy of Kahneman: Among his most influential works is the dichotomy between System 1 and System 2 thinking. 
  • System 1: It is quick, intuitive, and nearly automatic
  • System 2:  It  is slow, deliberative, and cautious. 

Daniel Kahneman: His Major Contributions

• Contribution to Judgement and Decision-making: Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky made substantial contributions to the field of judgement and decision-making, which deals with how human beings make choices in different situations.
• ‘Attention and Effort’(1973): His first book,  summarised contemporary literature on divided attention, a significant challenge in multitasking. 
  • He delved into focused attention, examining the dynamics of what captures an individual’s awareness, as well as selective attention. 
  • He collaborated with Anne Triesman, a prominent cognitive psychologist and his spouse, on various papers concerning attention, memory, recall, and visual perception. 
  • Triesman passed away in 2018.
• Judgement Under Uncertainty’(1982): This book cemented the connections between Kahneman’s early work in mental effort and the then emerging area of decision-making. 
• Loss aversion Theory: Daniel Kahneman and Tversky’s experiments hypothesised that individuals are more sensitive to loss than an equivalent amount of gain, and losses have in general, greater psychological impact on individuals.
  • The results changed the world of decision-making, which previously held that individuals only looked at outcomes in an absolute way, not as changes in outcomes. 

• Study of happiness and well-being: He made substantial contributions to the study of happiness and well-being later. His work focused on measuring happiness using multiple methods such as the reconstruction method.
• Book ‘Thinking, Fast and Slow’: It is among the best-selling books in psychology and business.
• Nobel Prize for Economics: He won the economics Nobel Prize in 2002 with experimental economist Vernon L. Smith.

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Context

NATO recently marked its 75th anniversary amidst disagreement over the next leader of the military alliance. 

About NATO Summit

• NATO Summit: The US will host a summit of all NATO leaders in Washington, where the founding treaty was signed. 
• Widening Gulf: The dispute deepens the divide that was created by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine by setting early members against those who joined after the Cold War.
• Debate for Succession: NATO leaders aimed to address the succession of current Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg, whose term concludes on September 30, during this week’s discussions.
  • Stoltenberg, a former Prime Minister of Norway, has led the alliance since 2014, with his initial four-year term extended four times.
• Obstruction in Consensus-Based Decision-Making: Debates regarding the next NATO leader underscore a notable aspect of the organization, which has served as both an asset and a liability.
• It has very few written rules and operates by consensus, usually meaning unanimous decisions.This has often provided flexibility, but occasionally allowed one member to block action.

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• About: It is a transatlantic security alliance composed of thirty-one member countries.
• Establishment: It was established in 1949 with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty, also called the Washington Treaty.
• Recent Members: Most recent additions were North Macedonia in 2020 and Finland in 2023 and Sweden in 2024.
• Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.

Objectives:  

• Cooperation: To provide a unique link between these transatlantic countries, enabling them to consult and cooperate on political and military issues.
• Limiting threat: To counter the threat of erstwhile Soviet Union’s possible expansion attempts in Europe.

Underlying Principle: 

• Principle of Collective Defence: NATO is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several of its members is considered as an attack against all. 
• Membership Criteria: NATO membership is open to “any other European state in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area.”

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Context

The death anniversary of Maratha warrior Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is observed on 3rd April 1680 every year.

• Maratha warrior Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on 3rd April 1680 died due to health issues. 

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Biography

• Birth: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was named Shivaji Bhosale and was a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan. 
  • He was born at Shivneri Fort in 1630.

• Founder of Maratha Empire: He carved an enclave from the Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur that marked the beginning of the Maratha Empire.
• Coronation: On 6th June 1674, he was crowned at Raigad by Gagabhatt, a learned pandit of Benaras and became the Chhatrapati of the Swaraj. 
  • On the occasion of the coronation, special coins were minted- a gold coin called hon and a copper coin called shivrai with the legend Shri Raja Shivachhatrapati inscribed on them.
• Titles: Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
• Capital: Raigad Fort; he ruled from there until his death.
• Hill forts: He seized the Torna fort, Raigad and Kondana forts, etc. He also repaired numerous forts in strategic locations.  
• Naval Force: He ensured that a strong naval presence was established along the Konkan coast to protect the sea trade of the Maratha empire. (The Indian Navy’s new ensign draws inspiration from Shivaji)
• Revenue administration: He implemented the Ryotwari system. The revenue system was based on the Kathi system, in which every piece of land was measured by Rod or Kathi.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were sources of income in Maratha administration:
  • Chauth referred to 1/4th of the standard paid to Marathas as a safeguard against Shivaji’s forces raiding non-Maratha territories.
  • Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% demanded from areas outside of the kingdom.
• Military administration: He established an efficient army and paid soldiers in cash and high-ranking officials through jagir grants (Saranjam). Infantry, Cavalry, and Navy comprised Shivaji’s army.
  • Groups of highly mobile, peasant pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha army.
• Maratha Navy: He also established the Maratha Navy to protect merchant ships and ports in order to secure and enhance revenue incomes derived from maritime trade and customs duty.
• Self-rule for Hindus/Hindavi Swarajya: He could unite diverse communities under the banner of Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule for Hindus) enabling him to carve out a formidable empire in the Deccan region.
• His objective in founding the Swaraj is clearly expressed in his official seal or Mudra which is in Sanskrit. 
• The Battle of Pratapgarh: This battle was pivotal in marking Shivaji’s ascension to power and resulted in the defeat of the Adil Shahis. This triumph represented Shivaji’s first significant conquest.
  • It stands as a turning point, setting the stage for prolonged conflicts between the Mughals and the Marathas in the Deccan.

Ashtapradhan Mandal of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: An Exemplary Model of Governance

• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had a Council of 8 ministers (Ashtapradhan Mandal) to look after the Kingdom efficiently. 
• The Ashtapradhan comprised eight ministers i.e. Peshwa (Prime Minister), Amatya (Finance Minister), Sachiv (Secretary), Mantri (Foreign Minister), Senapati (supreme commander of armed force), Sumant (Naval Affairs), Nyayadhish (upheld principles of Justice) and Pandit rao (responsible for cultural and religious affairs).
  • The Ashtapradhan Mandal was an administrative council in the Maratha Empire.  They were responsible for governance, economy, defence, and culture.

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Context

The World Bank released the South Asia regional update report, Jobs for Resilience.

Demographic Dividend: Key Findings from the Report

• South Asian Economic Outlook: India’s economy was expected to post a “robust growth” of 7.5% in FY23/24. 
  • This expansion coupled with recoveries in Sri Lanka and Pakistan, was largely driving the strong numbers for the South Asian region.
• Not Capitalizing on Demographic Dividend: The World Bank has warned that the South Asia region including India was not making use of its demographic dividend.
• Growth in the working-age population outpacing Job Creation: The pace of job creation in the region fell short of the growth in the working-age population, even as it projected  a strong 6.0-6.1% growth for 2024-25 for the region.
  • The region could have 16% higher output growth if the share of its working-age population that was employed was on a par with other emerging market and developing economies (EMDE).
• Status in India:  India’s employment growth  was “well below” the average growth in its working age population for the 2000-23 period.
• The country’s employment ratio had declined more than in any other country in the region except Nepal up till 2022. 
• India’s robust economic expansion has, however, kept the region’s output growth stronger than in other EMDE.
• Weak employment trends in the region: These were concentrated in non-agricultural sectors reflecting challenges in the institutional and economic climate, which had stifled the growth of businesses. 
• Recommendations for growth in Employment: Supporting the participation of women in the economy, increasing access to finance, increasing openness to trade, easing financial sector regulations and improving education.

World Bank (WB)

• About: The World Bank is the collective name for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA).
• Genesis: It was established along with the International Monetary Fund at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference of which India was a founding member.
• World Bank Group: It is a unique global partnership of five institutions working for sustainable solutions that reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries.

Different Institutions under World Bank Group

• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD): It provides commercial or concessional loans to only sovereign states or projects backed by sovereign states.
  • Its loans are aimed to improve transportation and infrastructure, education, domestic policy, environmental consciousness, energy investments, healthcare, access to food and potable water, and access to improved sanitation.
• International Development Association (IDA): It helps the world’s poorest countries and aims to reduce poverty by providing interest-free loans (called IDA Credits) and grants for programs that boost economic growth, reduce inequalities and improve people’s living conditions.
• International Finance Corporation (IFC): IFC was created in 1956 to foster private sector investment in developing nations.
  • It finances the private sector investment, mobilizing capital in the international financial markets, and providing advisory services to businesses and governments.
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee (MIGA): MIGA promotes foreign direct investment (FDI) into developing countries to help support economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve people’s lives.
• International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID): It is an autonomous, multilateral specialized institution to encourage international flow of investment and mitigate non-commercial risks.
  • India is not a member of ICSID.

Important Reports

• Global Economic Prospects
• Global Financial Development Report
• World Development Reports
• International Debt Statistics

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Context

According to a monthly survey released, India’s manufacturing sector had a strong performance in March, supported by strong sales and production.

Purchasing Managers Index: Key Findings

• Manufacturing PMI Hits 16-Year Peak in March: 

  • The seasonally adjusted HSBC India Manufacturing Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) surged to a 16-year high of 59.1 in March from 56.9 in February.
    • In PMI terminology, a print above 50 means expansion while a score below 50 denotes contraction. 

• Reasons for Peak in PMI: 

• • The HSBC India Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) reached a 16-year peak due to notable rises in both output and new orders, marking the strongest growth since October 2020. 
    • This coincided with the second-most significant increase in input inventories in the survey’s history.
    • Employers increased their purchasing levels and employment went back to positive territory.
    • The significant improvement in operating conditions was accompanied by increased job creation, output, and input stock growth as well as stronger growth in new orders.
• The survey highlighted a slight increase in cost pressures in March, reaching the highest level in five months. 

About HSBC India Manufacturing PMI

• It is compiled by S&P Global from responses to questionnaires sent to purchasing managers in a panel of around 400 manufacturers. 
• The panel is categorized according to specific sectors and the size of company workforces, determined by their contributions to GDP.

About Purchasing Managers Index (PMI)

• About: The Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) measures the month-over-month change in economic activity within the manufacturing sector. It is an indicator of business activity, both in the manufacturing and services sectors.
  • It summarizes whether market conditions as viewed by purchasing managers are expanding, neutral, or contracting.
• Calculation: The Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) is derived by sending fact-based questions to a large number of companies in the concerned sector. 
  • For manufacturing PMI, the questionnaire is sent to manufacturing companies. The questions are related to 5 key variables. 
  • The variables with their weights in the index are — new orders (30%), output (25%), employment (20%), suppliers’ delivery times (15%) and stock of items purchased (10%). 
  • The surveys are conducted on a monthly basis.
• Types of Purchasing Managers Index: There are two types of PMI — Manufacturing PMI and Services PMI. 
  • It is calculated separately for the manufacturing and services sectors and then a composite index is also constructed.
• Headline PMI: The headline PMI is a number from 0 to 100. 
  • PMI above 50 represents an expansion when compared to the previous month. 
  • PMI under 50 represents a contraction. 
  • A reading at 50 à indicates no change.
• Difference from IIP: It is different from the Index of Industrial Production (IIP), which also gauges the level of activity in the economy.
  • IIP covers the broader industrial sector compared to PMI. However, PMI is more dynamic compared to a standard industrial production index.
• PMI in India: IHS Markit produces the PMI for India. The IHS Markit India Manufacturing PMI measures the performance of India’s manufacturing sector. The index is derived after a survey of 500 manufacturing companies.
• Significance: Usually PMI is released before other indexes such as GDP, industrial output. 
  • PMI gives an idea about the direction the economy is taking and helps economists in predicting the manufacturing activity in the country. 
  • The manufacturers and suppliers use the index to decide on their production needs based on new orders in the coming months. 
  • The index also helps investors who are looking to invest in the stock markets as it helps in determining the economic health of the country.

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Context

The first part of the 29th session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) Assembly and Council took place recently in Jamaica.

29th Session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) Assembly: Key Highlights

• Completion of First Reading: At the meeting, a ‘first reading’ was completed of about one third of issues. However, none of the covered items have been cleared and they will be discussed again.
• Divergence of Issues: The 35 regulations discussed in this meeting contained divergences of views, alternative texts, and many disagreed text or parts.
• Regulations were related to underwater cultural heritage, test mining, regional environmental management plans, compliance committee, environmental compensation fund, royalties and safety measures.
  • The recent council meeting clearly shows that there remains a vast divide among member states regarding the development of a mining code in the absence of robust science.

Major Issues in the Regulations

• Economic Assistance Fund:  UNCLOS requires the establishment of an economic assistance fund and a compensation system to assist developing countries that suffer serious economic consequences as a result of lower export mineral prices caused by deep-sea minerals.
  • There is still no agreement on the fund’s purpose, who should manage it and how it should be implemented.
• Test Mining: Germany proposed in 2019 that any contractor seeking to shift from exploration to exploitation must conduct test mining during the exploration phase and submit the findings to the ISA.
  • This would allow the ISA to better evaluate applications. 
• Protecting the Marine Environment: Under UNCLOS, the ISA is obligated to protect the marine environment from harmful effects caused by seabed mining.
  • Under UNCLOS, the ISA regulates activities on the seabed and ocean floor beyond the scope of national jurisdiction while ensuring their protection. 
  • So far, it has issued 31 exploration contracts, totaling 1.5 million square kilometers of seabed, roughly half the size of the United States. 
• Controversy over the Right to Protest: In November 2023, Nauru Ocean Resources Inc notified ISA of a disruption of its permitted exploration activities by representatives of independent global campaigning network Greenpeace International.
  • During negotiations, Nauru called for a revocation of Greenpeace’s observer status and urged the ISA to establish safety zones around mining vessels.
  • The country recently convened two meetings (closed to observers) to discuss a proposal to prevent any other vessels from coming near a ship engaged in mining activities.
• Demand for ISA Mining Code Development: In 2021, Nauru issued a letter notifying the agency of NORI’s intention to apply for an exploitation contract in the Area within two years, putting additional pressure on the ISA to develop a mining code. 
  • Two-year rule: This triggered the ‘two-year rule’, which stipulates that the Council adopt regulations for exploitation within two years of receiving such a notice.
  • The ISA passed the deadline of July 9, 2023, leading to an increase in intensity and frequency of negotiations at the ISA. At the 28th session, the ISA Council declared its aim to adopt the regulations by 2025. 
  • However, the 2025 deadline seems “unrealistic”, given the divergence of views among member states.

What is Deep-sea mining?

• About: Deep-sea mining is an emerging industry that aims to extract minerals from the ocean’s surface, including manganese nodules, seafloor massive sulphides, and cobalt crusts.

• • Experts believe they contain critical minerals required for the production of batteries for electric vehicles and renewable energy capacity, as well as smartphones and laptops.
• Types of Mining: 
• • Taking deposit-rich polymetallic nodules off the ocean floor
  • Mining massive seafloor sulfide deposits
  • Stripping cobalt crusts from rock. 

India’s Deep-sea Mining Mission

• Deep Ocean Mission: It was launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences to boost India’s maritime infrastructure and harness the living and non-living resources from the deep-oceans.
  • Six themes of Mission: 
    • Development of technology for Deep-sea mining, manned submersibles, and underwater robotics; 
    • Development of ocean and climate change advisory services
    • Technology innovations for exploration and conservation of deep-sea biodiversity
    • Deep-ocean survey and exploration
    • Energy and freshwater from the ocean
    • An advanced marine station for ocean biology
• Varaha-1: India has developed a Deep-sea mining machine called Varaha-1 which successfully completed a field test at a depth of 5,270 meters in the Central Indian Ocean.

Where is India Engaged in Deep sea Exploration?

• Central Mid-Ocean Ridge: It is a triple junction area in the international water region. 
  • Here, hydrothermal sulphide deposits that contain multi-metals such as gold, platinum, and other minerals are explored.
• Central Indian Ocean: Here, poly-metallic nodules are explored.

Regulation of Deep-sea Mining

• The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is currently accepting mining permit applications from companies and countries.
• States should apply to ISA regardless of whether or not they have signed or ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas.
• Countries manage their own maritime territory and exclusive economic zones, while the high seas and the international ocean floor are governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS). 

Environmental Concerns 

• Threat to ecosystem: Only a small part of the deep seabed has been explored and conservationists worry that ecosystems will be damaged by mining, especially without any environmental protocols. 
• Associated damages: Noise, vibration and light pollution, as well as possible leaks and spills of fuels and other chemicals used in the mining process.
• Harm to Marine Life: Once valuable materials are extracted, slurry sediment plumes are sometimes pumped back into the sea. That can harm filter feeding species like corals and sponges, etc.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

• Aim: Adopted in 1982, itlays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world’s oceans and seas, establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. 
• Functions: 
  • It divides marine areas into five main zones: the High Seas, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), Contiguous Zone, Territorial Sea, and Internal Waters. 
  • It serves as the framework for offshore governance among coastal nations and seafarers. 
  • It offers detailed instructions on each state’s rights and obligations inside the five concentric zones.

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Context

Recently, the Indian Prime Minister’s post on social media of ‘callously‘ giving away the disputed territory of Katchatheevu Island to Sri Lanka in 1974 has resurfaced the issue again.

• In late February, fishermen associations in Ramanathapuram district boycotted the annual two-day festival, as a mark of protest against the Sri Lankan Government’s at the St. Anthony’s Church, in Katchatheevu Island on continuing arrests of Indian fishermen.

About Katchatheevu Island

• Katchatheevu means ‘barren island’ in Tamil.
• Location: Katchatheevu Island is a 285-acre uninhabited region in the Palk Strait, between India and Sri Lanka. 

Katchatheevu Island Map

• • It is located 33 km off the Indian coast to the northeast of Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu, and about 62 km southwest of Sri Lanka’s Delft Island.
• Formation: Katchatheevu Island is a tiny barren island and according to some official reports, it was created following a 14th-century volcanic eruption (hence, relatively new in the geological timescale), is 1.6 km in length and just 300 metres wide at its widest point.
• Built by: It was built in 1905 by Ramnad merchant Seenikuppan Padayachi, intended as a halfway ground for Indo-Lankan fishers for drying nets or asylums during tempests.
• Features of Katchatheevu Island
  • Katchatheevu Island is not suited for permanent settlement as there is no source of drinking water on the island.
  • The only structure on the island is an early 20th-century Catholic shrine – St Anthony’s Church. 
    • During an annual festival, Christian priests from both India and Sri Lanka conduct the service, with devotees from both India and Sri Lanka making the pilgrimage.
• Significance of Katchatheevu Island: The island had little strategic value then, but over the last decade, geopolitical dimensions changed due to the rising clout of China and its growing influence over Sri Lanka, making it a location of strategic importance for India.
• Concern: Katchatheevu Island is an unofficial battlefield between Indian Tamil fishers and a Sinhala-dominated Lankan navy. 
  • Reason: It is due to complex factors like excessive trawling in the Sethusamudram region, contested legacies of the Lankan civil war, and the bilateral irresolution of the Tamil question.

Katchatheevu Island Controversy and Agreements

• Background of Katchatheevu Island Controversy:

  • In the early medieval period, it was controlled by the Jaffna kingdom of Sri Lanka. 
  • In the 17th century, control passed to the Ramnad zamindari based out of Ramanathapuram, about 55 km northwest of Rameswaram.
  • It became part of the Madras Presidency during the British Raj. 

• Katchatheevu Island Controversy: 

  • In 1921, both India and Sri Lanka, at the time British colonies, claimed Katchatheevu in order to determine fishing boundaries. 
  • A survey was placed, but a British delegation from India challenged this, citing ownership of the island by the Ramnad kingdom.
  • The island was under the control of the kingdom of Ramanad Raja, a zamindari from 1795 to 1803 in Ramanathapuram in the Madras Presidency. 

• Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement, 1974: 

  • In 1974, then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi made attempts to settle the maritime border between India and Sri Lanka.
    • Under the agreement, India ‘ceded’ Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka.
    • However, the agreement did not specify the fishing rights of Indian fishermen.

• Agreement of 1976: 

  • In this agreement, the two countries drew the maritime boundary between India and Sri Lanka in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and made it clear that the two countries will exercise sovereign rights over the living and non-living resources of their respective zones.
    • India got exclusive rights over Wadge Bank (located near Cape Comorin).
    • It ended the Indian fishermen’s visits to the island.
      • Katchatheevu Island and the adjoining seas naturally fell within Sri Lanka’s jurisdiction.

• Opposition to the Agreement: 

  • Most of the Opposition including the DMK, AIADMK, Jan Sangh, Swatantara and the Socialist Party, opposed the agreement.
    • In 1991, then Tamil Nadu Chief Minister, urged the centre to retrieve Katchatheevu and restore the fishing rights for Tamil Fishermen and Tamil Nadu Assembly also adopted a resolution demanding retrieval of Katchatheevu.

• Legal Status: 

• • Even though there have been protests and petitions to get back Katchatheevu, the Indian Supreme Court has said that the agreement made in 1974 is still valid. 
    • In 2014, the major political parties of Tamil Nadu, AIADMK and DMK, approached the Supreme Court to declare the Katchatheevu agreements of 1974 and 1976, as null and void.
    • Stand by the Union Government: In 2022, while referring to the two agreements of 1974 and 1976, said in the Rajya Sabha that Katchatheevu lies on the Sri Lankan side of the India-Sri Lanka International Maritime Boundary Line and the matter was sub-judice in the Supreme Court.

Significance of the Signed Agreement

• A Safety Move from Emanating Threats: India’s “loss” was minuscule compared to prospective strategic and political threats emanating from Lankan territories and partners.
• Strengthened  Bilateral Relations: The 1974 agreement addressed the maritime boundary dispute between India and Sri Lanka and paved the way for better understanding. 
  • The then-Indian High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, Vincent Coelho, described the session as “a masterstroke of statesmanship to the satisfaction of both India and Ceylon.”
• Restoration of Image: Katchatheevu’s cession restored India’s generous diplomacy, which, at international forums, such as the UN, reaffirmed the nationalistic outlook, especially after India’s role in the Bangladeshi War of Liberation. 
• A Diplomatic Masterstroke: Katchatheevu Island’s cession was an act of drowning the colonial divide-and-rule policy in the Indian Ocean. In return, the Indian administration secured the: 
  • Indian Ocean as a zone of peace in the face of growing American and Soviet regimentation.
  • Continued friendship with Sri Lanka in the face of an increasingly volatile South Asian neighbourhood.
  • The reprioritisation of Lankan Tamil expatriates.
  • Legalised the free mobility of Indian pilgrims and fishers to Katchatheevu.

Concerns with the Katchatheevu Island that India Needs to Address

• Detaining of Indian Fishing Vessels & Fishermen: 

  • Indian fishing vessels and fishermen from Tamil Nadu are often held by Sri Lankan authorities.
    • In the last 20 years, 6,184 Indian fishermen had been detained and 1,185 fishing vessels had been seized by the Sri Lankans.
    • In 2022, a Lankan court asked 13 arrested Indian fishers to pay a fine of Rs 10 million.

• Challenge of Livelihoods for Traditional Fishing Communities: 

  • The Katchatheevu Island served as a traditional fishing ground for fishermen and its controversy has restricted the mobility of traditional fishing communities in coastal waters. 
    • It is difficult for traditional fishing communities to sustain their livelihood and impact economic stability. 

• Impact on Religion & Cultural Values: 

  • The Katchatheevu Island controversy has impacted the cultural and religious values of the Indo-Srilankan region. 
    • Example: Recent boycott of the annual two-day festival at St. Anthony’s Church on continuing arrests of Indian fishermen.

• Threat of Chinese Aggression: 

  • With the rise of assertive China in the last decade, and its exploits overseas, experts perceived a threat from a potential Chinese hold in the Katchatheevu and the entire Palk Strait.
    • Example: Hambantota is a testimony of how vulnerable Sri Lanka has been to Chinese interference and presence in the region. 

• Internal Opposition: 

  • The transfer of Katchatheevu Island was opposed, particularly from Tamil Nadu.
    • Example: In 1991, Tamil Nadu Assembly also adopted a resolution demanding retrieval of Katchatheevu.
    • It needs to be understood that the Katchatheevu cession was not new and first in India. Earlier land territories were also ceded to Bangladesh and Pakistan.
      • Practically, there was no ceding (of the island) as earlier the maritime boundary was not demarcated and also the island contained no practical, political, or even pastoral value.

• Enforcement Challenges: 

• • Successive Indian administrations, especially during and after the Lankan Civil War, were not successful in enforcing the agreements.

• Other Issues: 

• • Tamil Nadu’s continued incentivisation of trawling and risky foraging across the maritime border, ecological crises and the deviations between Lankan bilateral and domestic policies.
    • Example: In 2018, Sri Lanka amended its Regulation of Foreign Fishing Boats Act (1979) to amplify the penalty levied on trespassing foreign vessels to charge anything between six million and 175 million SLR (local currency). 

Way Forward

• Stick to Signed Agreement: 

  • Reopening old agreements would set a bad precedent and will damage India’s credibility too. India needs to maintain its stand on the signed agreement.
    • Example: If there is a change in the original agreement, it would raise concerns for countries that have finalised land boundary agreements with India like Bangladesh.

• A Collaborative Approach: 

  • In order to sort out the issues such as fishermen detentions and restriction on mobilities, both countries need to discuss the issue and mutually come out with a win-win solution. 
    • Both countries need to collaborate on emerging issues and tackle them such as ecological crisis, health issues, cybersecurity, etc. 

• Need to Improve Relations with Neighbours: 

  • India must work to improve and not deteriorate its relations in the neighbourhood. 
    • With the Chinese aggressively making inroads and enhancing its ties in India’s neighbourhood with its project- string of pearls, India must maintain good relations with the neighbours for a stable region.

• Expand the Strategic Focus: 

• • Indian foreign policy has evolved in the past decade and now regions from the South Pacific to the African coast are integral to India’s strategic focus.
    • Example: India’s new engagement with the resource-rich Papua New Guinea in the Pacific Islands, the joint development of infrastructure on the Agalega island of Mauritius, the collaboration with Australia in the eastern Indian Ocean islands, or the focus on developing the Andamans to our east and the Lakshadweep to the west.

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