Revision of Modern Indian History for UPSC 2027

Modern Indian History forms a significant part of the UPSC Civil Services Examination. Questions from this section appear regularly in both the Preliminary and Main examinations, making revision essential. Since the syllabus covers more than two centuries of political, social, and economic developments, revising the most important events in a logical sequence helps improve understanding and retention.

This revision brings together the major phases of Modern Indian History, beginning with the arrival of Europeans and ending with India’s Independence. It also covers the important movements, reforms, personalities, and administrative changes that shaped the Indian freedom struggle.

Arrival of Europeans

India maintained flourishing trade relations with several countries long before European powers arrived. The demand for Indian spices, textiles, silk, and other goods encouraged European nations to establish direct sea routes to India.

Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a permanent presence in India.

• Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on 20 May 1498.
• They established their first factory at Cochin in 1503.
• They introduced the Estado da Índia to manage their territories.
• Portuguese rule in Goa, Daman, and Diu continued until 1961, when these regions became part of India through Operation Vijay.

Dutch

The Dutch East India Company entered India mainly for trade.

• Their first factory was established at Masulipatnam in 1605.
• They later shifted their commercial interests towards the East Indies.
• Their influence in India gradually declined after defeats by the British.

British

The British East India Company gradually transformed from a trading organisation into a political power. Important developments include:

• The East India Company was established in 1599.
• Captain William Hawkins visited Emperor Jahangir in 1608.
• Jahangir permitted the British to establish a factory at Surat in 1613.
• Bombay came under British control in 1661 as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza to King Charles II.
• The British developed important settlements at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.

One of the most significant developments was Farrukhsiyar’s Farman (1717), which granted the Company duty-free trade in Bengal upon payment of an annual fee. This order considerably strengthened British commercial interests and is often referred to as the Magna Carta of British Rule in India.

French

The French East India Company was established under the guidance of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the Finance Minister of King Louis XIV.

• The first French factory in India was established at Surat in 1668.
• Their major settlements included Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Mahe, Karaikal, and Yanam.

Carnatic Wars

The rivalry between the British and the French resulted in three Carnatic Wars.

The British victory in the Third Carnatic War effectively ended French political ambitions in India.

Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was the first large-scale uprising against British rule in India. Although several regional revolts had taken place earlier, this revolt spread across northern and central India and challenged the authority of the East India Company.

Causes of the Revolt

Several political, economic, military, and social factors contributed to the outbreak.

Political Causes

• Expansion under the Doctrine of Lapse introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
• Annexation of states such as Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Awadh.
• Loss of authority of Indian rulers.

Economic Causes

• Heavy taxation on peasants.
• Decline of traditional industries.
• Exploitation through British trade policies.

Military Causes

• Discrimination against Indian soldiers.
• Lower salaries and limited promotions.
• Religious concerns among sepoys.

Immediate Cause

The introduction of the Enfield rifle became the immediate trigger. Soldiers were required to bite cartridges allegedly greased with cow and pig fat, which hurt the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.

Beginning of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 began with the uprising of Indian soldiers against British rule, triggered by the Enfield rifle cartridge controversy.

• 29 March 1857: Mangal Pandey attacked British officers at Barrackpore.
• 10 May 1857: Soldiers at Meerut revolted.
• 11 May 1857: Rebels reached Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of India.

Results of the Revolt

Although the revolt was suppressed, it brought major administrative changes.

• Rule of the East India Company came to an end.
• Administration was transferred directly to the British Crown under the Government of India Act, 1858.
• The office of Governor-General became the Viceroy.
• British policy towards Indian rulers became more cautious.
• The revolt inspired future generations in the freedom struggle.

Many historians consider the Revolt of 1857 as the first major expression of organised resistance against British colonial rule.

Modern Nationalism and Indian National Congress

The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed the rise of social reform movements and political awareness across India. Western education, the spread of newspapers, and growing dissatisfaction with British policies encouraged educated Indians to demand political rights and social reforms. These developments gradually laid the foundation for organised nationalism.

Social and Religious Reform Movements

Several reformers worked towards removing social evils and promoting education during this period.

These reform movements encouraged education, social equality, and national consciousness, creating an environment for political awakening.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on 28 December 1885 by A.O. Hume.

Important facts:

• First session held in Bombay.
• W.C. Bonnerjee became the first President.
• Initially, Congress demanded administrative reforms and greater Indian participation in governance through constitutional methods.

Important Political Developments

The early twentieth century witnessed several major political developments that influenced India’s nationalist movement. These events increased political awareness and intensified the demand for self-rule.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

• Announced by Lord Curzon.
• Came into effect on 16 October 1905.
• Officially justified on administrative grounds but widely viewed as an attempt to divide Indians on communal lines.
• Triggered the Swadeshi Movement and the boycott of foreign goods.

Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

• Established on 30 December 1906 at Dhaka.
• Founded under the leadership of Nawab Salimullah.
• Initially aimed to protect the political interests of Muslims.

Surat Split (1907)

The Congress split into two groups:

• Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

The reforms introduced:

• Separate electorates for Muslims.
• Increased representation of Indians in legislative councils.
• However, real political power remained with the British Government.

Annulment of the Partition of Bengal (1911)

Due to widespread protests and the success of the Swadeshi Movement, the British cancelled the Partition of Bengal in 1911.

The capital of British India was also shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in the same year.

Gandhian Era

The arrival of Mahatma Gandhi marked a new phase in India’s freedom struggle. His methods of Satyagraha, non-violence, and mass participation transformed the national movement and brought ordinary people into the struggle for independence.

Gandhi’s Return to India

• Returned from South Africa on 9 January 1915.
• Initially worked under the guidance of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Introduced the principles of truth and non-violence into Indian politics.

These movements established Gandhi as a national leader.

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

In 1919, the British Government passed the Rowlatt Act, allowing detention without trial. Opposition to the Act led to nationwide protests.

On 13 April 1919, General Dyer ordered troops to fire on a peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, resulting in hundreds of deaths. The incident deeply shocked the nation and intensified the freedom movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

The movement encouraged people to:

• Boycott foreign goods.
• Leave government schools and colleges.
• Resign from government jobs.
• Avoid British courts and institutions.

However, after the Chauri Chaura Incident (1922), Gandhi withdrew the movement because it had turned violent.

Civil Disobedience Movement

The movement began with the famous Dandi March.

Important facts:

• Started on 12 March 1930.
• Gandhi walked from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
• Challenged the British Salt Law by producing salt.

The movement spread throughout India and witnessed large-scale participation from people across different sections of society.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

The agreement resulted in:

• Suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Participation of Gandhi in the Second Round Table Conference held in London.

However, the conference did not produce any major political settlement.

Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932)

The British Government announced the Communal Award, providing separate electorates for several communities, including the Depressed Classes. Gandhi opposed this proposal and began a fast.

The issue was resolved through the Poona Pact between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, which provided reserved seats for the Depressed Classes within the joint electorate system.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA

Subhas Chandra Bose became Congress President in 1938 but later resigned due to ideological differences.

He subsequently:

• Formed the Forward Bloc.
• Established the Indian National Army (INA) with the support of Japan.
• Inspired Indians with the slogan “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

Although the INA did not achieve military success, it significantly strengthened the nationalist movement and inspired widespread support for independence.

Independence and Partition of India

The final phase of India’s freedom struggle was shaped by the demand for independence, growing communal tensions, and the political developments during the Second World War. Between 1940 and 1947, several constitutional proposals, mass movements, and negotiations ultimately led to the end of British rule and the partition of the country.

Demand for Pakistan

The idea of a separate Muslim nation gradually gained support during the 1940s. Some important developments include:

• Choudhary Rahmat Ali coined the term “Pakistan” in the early 1930s.
• The Lahore Resolution (1940), passed by the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanded separate states for Muslims.
• The Cripps Mission (1942) proposed constitutional reforms but failed to satisfy Indian political leaders.
• Mahatma Gandhi criticised the proposal as a “Post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”

Quit India Movement (1942)

The Quit India Movement marked one of the most significant phases of the freedom struggle.

Important facts:

• Launched on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank Maidan (Mumbai).
• Led by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Famous slogan: “Do or Die.”
• Most national leaders were arrested immediately after the movement began.
• Despite severe repression, the movement witnessed widespread public participation across the country.

The movement demonstrated that British rule had lost popular support and strengthened India’s demand for complete independence.

Towards Independence

Several political developments accelerated the transfer of power.

Independence and Partition

Following the acceptance of the Mountbatten Plan:

• The Indian Independence Act, 1947 was passed by the British Parliament.
• India and Pakistan became two independent dominions.
• India achieved Independence on 15 August 1947.
• Lord Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India.
• Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India.

While Independence marked the end of nearly two centuries of British rule, the Partition resulted in large-scale migration, communal violence, and humanitarian challenges across both newly formed nations.

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