Context: Goods and Services Tax (GST) revenues data for the first nine months of 2023-24 reveal weak consumer expenditure because of uneven consumption growth across States.

Regional Disparity in State GST Collections

• The National Statistical Office estimates private final consumption expenditure (PFCE) will grow 4.4% in 2023-2024, the slowest since 2002-03.
  • The Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE): It is  the expenditure incurred by the resident households and non-profit institutions serving households (NPISH) on final consumption of goods and services, whether made within or outside the economic territory.
• State GST Growth rates: Among the 20 largest States that account for nearly 97% of State GST collections, the regional disparity in consumption growth is visible.
  • Gujarat (9.5%) and West Bengal (9.8%) have clocked growth in single digits.
  • Odisha, Rajasthan, and Chhattisgarh have grown at rates lower than the national average of 15.2%,( being attributed to  tepid rural demand due to weaker farm sector outcomes)
  • States such as Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Telangana have seen State GST revenues rise in a range of 17% to 18.8%.
• Wage Growth: As per India Ratings and Research economists, it has turned marginally negative for lower-income households while rising 6.4% for their upper-income counterparts in the second quarter of this year.
  • Rising Inequality: Ongoing consumption demand is skewed in favor of goods and services consumed largely by households belonging to the upper-income bracket. 

Must Read: Resolving Regional Disparities: States in South are more developed than North

News Source: The Hindu

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Context: Voice clone fraud has been on the rise in India as voice cloning through artificial intelligence is  increasingly being used for scams.

AI Voice Scams: Alarming Statistics from India

• The Artificial Imposter Report, 2022: It revealed that 47% of surveyed Indians have either been a victim or knew someone who had fallen prey to an AI-generated voice scam. 
  • For instance, recently a Lucknow resident fell prey to a cyberattack that used AI to impersonate the voice of the victim’s relative, requesting the person to transfer a substantial amount through UPI. 
• AI Voice Scams: According to McAfee, 66% of Indian participants admitted that they would respond to a voice call or a phone call that appeared to be from a friend or family member in urgent need of money. 

Must Read: NCRB Data On Cyber Crime In India

About Voice Cloning

• Voice Cloning: It is the process of creating a synthetic voice using the audio recordings of a real person. 

• AI Voice Cloning: Voice cloning using Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to train a Machine Learning voice model on real recordings can extract spectrums of the voice and create a voice that sounds almost exactly like the real voice.
  • For instance, voice cloning using advanced deep learning techniques can create expressive, emotional, and emotional voice clones that resemble 99% of the real voice.
• Misuse of Voice Clones: Scammers use an audio clip of an individual and upload their voice clip to an online program that is able to replicate the voice almost accurately. 
• Voice Cloning Services: There’s a host of these applications online with popular ones like Murf, Resemble, Speechify, etc.

Voice Cloning Working Mechanism

• Data Collection and Preprocessing: To clone voices effectively, an extensive dataset of voice samples is required. 
  • Once collected, these audio samples undergo preprocessing, where the sounds are cleaned, organized, and formatted to be fed into the AI models.
• Role of Neural Networks: These advanced AI frameworks scrutinize the raw audio data extract patterns and decipher the complex web of sound. 
• Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): A dynamic framework propels the technology’s capability to clone voices. It comprises two components viz. the generator and the discriminator.
  • The generator’s role is to create synthetic voices.
  • The discriminator undertakes the task of differentiating between generated and authentic human voices. 
• Creating Authentic Voices: The process of AI voice cloning culminates in the creation of authentic voices. 

News Source: TH

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Context: The Union Health Minister launched India’s first health food street, Prasadam in Ujjain Madhya Pradesh.

About PRASADAM Initiative

• About: Prasadam will house 19 shops which will offer convenient and culturally rich dining options for the 1-1.5 lakh devotees who visit the Mahakaleshwar temple daily.
• Financial Assistance: The financial assistance for the initiative to the states and UTs is being provided in the form of Rs 1 crore per food street under the National Health Mission in the ratio of 60:40 or 90:10 to fill up critical gaps, with the condition that standard branding of these food streets will be done as per FSSAI guidelines.
• Facilities: It is designed to provide various facilities including a kids’ play area, drinking water facility, CCTV surveillance, parking, public conveniences and seating spaces.

News Source: Indian Express 

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Context: 1,75,025 pilgrims from India have been finalized for Haj Pilgrimage 2024.

• 1,40,020/1,75,025  pilgrims will  proceed through the Haj Committee of India  whereas 35,005 pilgrims will be permitted to proceed through Haj Group Operators.

What is Hajj?

• Hajj (pilgrimage made to Kaaba)  is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to the sacred city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia,  the holiest city for Muslims.
• The rites of pilgrimage are performed over five to six days, extending from the 8th to the 12th or 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar.
•  It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, alongside Shahadah (oath that one believes there is no god but Allah (God)),  salat (prayer), zakat (almsgiving) and sawm (fasting of Ramadan).
• Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey.

News Source: PIB

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Context: Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Mandir or Ayodhya Ram Mandir will be inaugurated on January 22.

Ayodhya Ram Mandir: Ram Lalla Idol Consecration Ceremony Or Pran Pratishtha on January 16, 2024

• The Pran Pratishtha or consecration ceremony of the Ram Lalla idol will begin on 16 January with Vishnu Puja and gau daan at the Saryu embankment.

About Ayodhya Ram Mandir

• Layout of Ayodhya Ram Mandir

• • The Temple is built over three 20-foot high floors each with a total of 392 pillars and 44 doors in the complex.
  • Foundation of the temple: It is built of a 14-metre-thick layer of roller-compacted concrete. And a 21-foot-high granite plinth has been placed to protect against ground moisture.
  • Iron has not  been used anywhere in the construction
  • Stone used: Makrana Marble and Pink sandstone, granite stone,  and colored Marble.
  • Ram Katha Darshan: The walkways and columns during Parikrama  have been engraved with 100 events from Valmiki’s Ramayana.

• Architecture style of Ayodhya Ram Mandir: Nagara style 

  • Sanctum Sanctorum (garbhagriha): Placed with the idol of Ram Lalla 
  • Mandaps (halls): Nritya Mandap, Rang Mandap, Sabha Mandap, Prarthana Mandap and Kirtan Mandap.
  • Mandirs: At each corner of the compound will be  dedicated to Surya, Bhagwati, Ganesh, Shiv. On the northern and southern arms, temples to Annapurna and Hanuman will be built respectively.
  • Temples of Maharshi Valmiki, Vashishtha, Vishwamitra, Agastya, Nishad Raj, Shabri etc have also been proposed.

• Other features of Ayodhya Ram Mandir

• • Installed  200KA light arresters over the temple structure for protection against lightning strikes.

Also Read: Jagannath Temple Beautification Project

News source: Indian Express

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Context: The criticisms are faced by the recently notified Post-Graduate Medical Education Regulations, 2023 (PGMER 2023 Regulations) in India.

About the NMC PGMER 2023 Regulations or Post-Graduate Medical Education Regulations

• Introduction of New Medical Courses: It introduced Six types of Postgraduate (PG) medical courses with varying durations, covering broad-specialty qualifications, super-specialty courses, diploma courses, and post-doctoral certificate courses. 
• Online Counseling: Common counseling for admission to PG medical courses in India will be conducted online by state or central counseling authorities, ensuring a merit-based selection process. 
• Compulsory Residential Rotation: The introduction of a compulsory residential rotation (District Residency Programme or DRP) of three months for MD or MS students in broad specialties in district hospitals, providing hands-on experience.
• Reduce Approval Time: Medical colleges can now apply for permission to start PG medical courses one year after receiving approval for undergraduate courses.
• Academic Cells: There is also the provision of the establishment of academic cells to monitor training programs and ensure their quality. 
• Smooth Operation: The existing NEET-PG examination will continue till the proposed National Exit Test (NExT) becomes operational for the purpose of PG admission.
• Recognition to Medical College: Once a medical college is granted permission to start PG courses or seats, the course will be treated as recognized.
• Strict Implementation: For better implementation of regulations, there is a provision of penalty clauses which include monetary penalty, reduction in the number of seats (admission capacity), or complete stoppage of admissions.
  • Non-Compliance: It also outlines penalties for non-compliance, with medical institutions facing a fine of ₹1 crore per seat for breaching regulations. A two-year admission ban may be imposed for continued non-compliance.
• Beneficial for Students: All post-graduate students will work as full-time resident doctors for “reasonable working hours” and will be provided “reasonable time for rest” in a day.
  • They will be permitted a minimum of 20 days of casual leave per year and five days of academic per year. 
    • However, earlier there was no written provision for leaves.
  • Tracking of Progress: A dynamic e-log book will track postgraduate students’ progress, and will engage them in thesis-related research.

Need of the Post-Graduate Medical Education Regulations, 2023: 

• To foster quality, ethical practice, and inclusivity within the medical fraternity and to enhance the standards of education and practice nationwide. 
• To prohibit the migration of students from one medical institution to another.
• To reserve seats in medical colleges for various categories will align with the prevailing laws in States/Union Territories.

PGMER 2023: Its Criticisms

• Working Hours: The use of “reasonable time for rest” in a day is vague and limits the specific limits on working hours.
  • Many times junior doctors work 72 to 96 hours without break, so there must be clarity on the working hours of the resident doctors.
• Mental Health: The reforms are silent over the measures for mental health and burnout prevention.
• Irregularity of Stipends: The ongoing issue of irregular stipends has not been addressed.
  • PG students in private medical colleges contend that their stipends fall significantly short of those offered by government medical colleges (GMC).
• Integration of Artificial Intelligence in the Curriculum: In new reforms, there is also a lack of guidelines for the integration of Artificial Intelligence in the curriculum.
• Inclusivity Issues: The regulations offer a 5% reservation for doctors with disabilities but have been criticized for not incorporating the recommendations from “Doctors with Disabilities: Agents of Change.” 
  • Also, terms like ‘moderate’ dyslexia and the exclusion of mental illness and autism contradict existing laws and ignore Supreme Court directives (Vibhushita Sharma petition), indicating a lack of thorough inclusivity.

News Source: The Hindu

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Context: With the expansion of Janaushadhi Kendra to more than 10,000 centers the pharma companies are facing losses.

Analysis on Generic Medicines and Its Impact on Pharma Industry

• The rising penetration of generic medicine is denting the growth of the Rs 1.9 lakh-crore domestic pharma market. 

What is Janaushadhi Kendra?

• Janaushadhi Kendras sell generic drugs that are priced 50 to 60 per cent lower than the popular brands.
• Implemented by: Pharma & Medical Bureau of India (PMBI), Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers.
• Social Benefits: 
  • Many of Janaushadhi stores are run by women entrepreneurs. Eg- Kerala. 
• Distribution: Currently, 33 percent of the stores are in South India.  
  • Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of Janaushadhi stores, at 1,481.
• Drugs: Five out of the top 10 selling drugs at Janaushadhi kendras across India are related to diabetes and hypertension treatment.

News Source: BS

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Context: Recently, seven products from Odisha, have been added to the list of GI tags.

7 Tribal-linked Odisha Products Get GI Tags

About Geographical Indications or GI Tags

• Geographical Indications of goods refer to the place of origin of a product and provide assurance about the quality of the product. 
• International Treaty: These tags are a part of the Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) guided by the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 1883.
• Implementation: In India, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, implements a Geographical Indication Tag 
• Importance: The GI tag conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, because of its origin in a specific geographical locality, region or country. 

Enroll now for UPSC Online Course

GI Tags in 2023

Read More on GI Tag, here.

Source: Indian Express

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Context: The First Advance Estimates (FAEs) released by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoS&PI) showed that India’s GDP will grow by 7.3% in the current financial year (2023-24). 

What is First Advance Estimates (FAEs)?

• Definition: The First Advance Estimates (FAEs) are estimates of GDP based on the performance of the economy over the first seven months, and are presented at the end of the first week of January every year.
  • They are the “advance” estimates because they are published long before the financial year (April to March) is over.
• Methodology: They are compiled using the benchmark-indicator method, i.e. the estimates available for the previous year (2022-23) are extrapolated using the relevant indicators of various sectors.
  • Indicators like Index of Industrial Production (IIP), Financial performance of Listed Companies and Crop production targets are used.
• Significance: Advance estimates help the government decide on budget allocation and give policymakers more information on the expected trajectory of the economy in the upcoming year.

About India’s GDP Estimate

• By the end of March 2024, India’s GDP is expected to rise to almost Rs 172 lakh crore (Constant Prices 2011-12). 
  • India’s GDP was Rs 98 lakh crore in 2014, and it reached almost Rs 140 lakh crore in 2019.

Other Estimates for India’s GDP

• Gross Value Added (GVA) in the economy may ease slightly from 7% in 2022-23 to 6.9% this year.
• The fiscal deficit may breach the year’s 5.9% of GDP target to hit around 6%.
• GVA growth for the farm sector is estimated to more than halve from 4% a year ago to 1.8% this year
• GVA in Trade, Hotels, Transport, and Communication is estimated to moderate to 6.3% from 14% in 2022-23. 

• Manufacturing GVA growth is estimated to accelerate to 6.5% in 2023-24 from just 1.3% a year earlier.
• Mining GVA is expected to rise 8.1%, from 4.6% in 2022-23.
• Growth: A 7.3% real growth rate has been estimated for 2023-24.
• Reasons for Growth: The growth has been fuelled by increased state capital spending and an expansion in manufacturing activities.
  • S&P Global Ratings anticipates India to retain its position as the fastest-growing major economy over the next three years, is projected to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2030.
• GDP Estimation Using Expenditure Method: 

• • Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) accounts for almost 60% of India’s GDP.
  • Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) is the second-largest factor that typically accounts for 30% of the GDP.
  • Government Final Consumption Expenditure (GFCE) is the smallest contributor, accounting for around 10% of GDP.
  • Net exports or net spending (a result of Indians’ spending on imports and foreigners’ spending on Indian exports) is negative since India typically imports more than it exports.

India’s GDP Growth: Challenges 

• Weak External Demand: India’s exports to GDP ratio has been declining since 2013-14. The ratio was 25% in 2011-12 and declined to 18% by 2019-20.
• Low Capital Investment: India’s investment fell from 39.8% of GDP in 2010 to approx 29.3% in 2021 due to lack of confidence and demand in the economy. However this is improving now. 
• Poor Performance of the Manufacturing Sector: Manufacturing sector contributes to value addition, exports, and employment. However, challenges like Demonetisation, GST and global supply chain problems. 

Must Read: India To Be A $ 7 Trillion Economy By 2030: CEA

Way Forward

• A Large and Young Population: With the growing population in the country, the huge demographic dividend provides an opportunity for high growth rate through investment in skill and education. 
• Maintaining Macroeconomic Stability and Resilience: These macroeconomic factors like inflation are important determinants of growth and investment. Maintaining stable macroeconomic conditions is essential for sustaining economic growth.  

News Source: Indian Express

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Context: As per the Union Health Ministry, 75% of new infectious diseases that have emerged over the past three decades have been zoonotic, and the Ministry is increasing its focus on zoonotic diseases.

What are Zoonotic Diseases?

• Zoonotic diseases are infections that are spread between people and animals. 
• These infections are caused by germs, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.
• For Example:
• • Rabies, Anthrax, Brucellosis, Plague, Tuberculosis, Leptospirosis and Salmonellosis.

Must Read: New Class Of Antibiotic Against A Drug-Resistant Bacterium

News Source: Livemint

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Context: This article is based on the news “52% drop in toy imports in 8 years, 239% jump in exports: Commerce Ministry” which was published in the Business Standard. The Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Lucknow recently conducted a case study on the “Success Story of Made in India Toys.”

The Toy industry in India as the Sunrise Sector (Findings of the Report):

• Favourable Government Policies (2014-20): The government’s efforts have facilitated the development of a favorable manufacturing ecosystem for the Indian toy industry (See Image for Details).
  • India doubled the number of manufacturing units.
  • 12 percent decrease in reliance on imported inputs.
  • A 10 percent compound annual growth rate (CAGR) increase in gross sales value and an overall increase in labor productivity.
• Rising Toy Industry in India: India’s toy industry witnessed a 52 percent decline in imports of toys and a 239 percent rise in exports in 2022-23 compared with 2014-15.
• Global Integration and Market Access: India is emerging as a top exporting nation of toys due to the country’s integration into the global toy value chain, along with zero-duty market access for domestically manufactured toys in countries, including UAE and Australia.

Continue To Read: Indian Toy Industry: Exports Witnessed Significant Growth

About Indian Toys: Background, Transformation, and Significance

• Historical Roots

  • The toy industry in India can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • The original toys comprised whistle-shaped parrots, toy monkeys, and miniature farm carts. All these toys were made from natural materials such as bamboo sticks, hay, and natural clay-like soil, rocks, and fiber cloth. 

• Modern Transformation of Indian Toys

• • The advent of progressive technology and mechanisms has stimulated companies to produce fresh and inventive toys. 
  • India aims to be a global toy hub by 2025-2030. 

Significance of Indian Toys

• Employment Intensive Sector:  The Toy Industry of India provides employment opportunities, particularly in rural areas where many artisans are involved.
  • India’s toy market has the potential to grow to $2-3 billion by 2024 (from $1.7 billion in 2017), and for every $100 million investment in the sector, 20,000 direct jobs, and 8,000 indirect jobs can be created.
• Expanding Manufacturing: It will aid in Make in India’s effort by encouraging and promoting domestic manufacturing which will help create jobs and lessen reliance on toy imports.
  • Indian toys market size reached USD 1.7 Billion in 2023 from USD 1.4 BIllion in 2021.
• Export Potential and Foreign Exchange Earnings: Ingenious toys produced using themes, tales, and characters drawn from India’s diverse cultural heritage will appeal to the Indian and foreign markets, gaining foreign exchange for India (See Infographics).
• Strengthening Education and Skill Development: Toys serve as entertainment and educational resources. 
• • Children’s learning experiences can be enriched by educational toys that emphasize STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics) disciplines. 
  • As technology and science advanced, the demand for toys that serve as a medium for problem-solving skills, STEM education and concept development saw an upward trajectory.
• Cultural Ambassador of India: It features characters and stories from ancient Indian culture, stimulating curiosity and learning among people about the country’s rich culture.
  • Modi Toys commemorates ‘Atma Nirbhar Indian Toys,’ with inspiration from India’s  artistic tradition, culture, and heritage, along with its mythological tales and characters. 
• Empowering Rural Women: It has helped local women to use traditional art and tap into local markets. 
  • Ex- In Jharkhand, women are learning to use sawdust, soil, clothes, and other things for making toys and selling products by organizing regular exhibitions in various fairs.

Potential of Indian Toy Industry

• Market Size: With consumers becoming increasingly well-informed, there is a rise in the demand for diverse, educational, and high-quality toys.
• Consumer Base: About 25 percent of the Indian population falls into the 0-14-year category, a huge customer segment.
• Low-Cost Labour: According to a study by KPMG-FICCI, low-cost labour in India offers a significant growth prospect for the toy industry.
  • India’s labor cost per hour is $1.7 compared to China’s $5.8. 
• Anticipation of a Surge in STEM Concepts in Toy Industry: There is an anticipation of a greater infusion of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) concepts into educational toys. 
  • These innovative toys will equip children with essential skills for the digital age, such as coding and robotics knowledge.
• International Support: India’s toymakers have begun to get support from global buyers. US-based retail giant Walmart is looking to source toys from Indian suppliers.
• • Walmart has set a target of USD 10 billion for overall imports from India, including Indian toys.
• China Plus One Strategy: With countries looking for alternatives to Chinese products, the Indian toy industry may serve as an alternative import destination for toys.
  • According to Statista, China has been the world’s largest toy market, exporting 59.2% of the total toy trade value in 2022.

What Challenges Are Associated with the Toy Industry in India?

• Fragmented and Unorganised Sector: The toy industry is still highly fragmented, dominated by local producers (60 percent of India’s 4,000 toy manufacturers are unorganized), and lacks innovation, and resources to invest in equipment and technology. 
  • Currently, the toy manufacturers in India are mostly located in NCR, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and clusters across central Indian states.Extremely small units have dominated the sector; around 75% are micro units and 22% are small and medium enterprises. It’s not viable for small units to buy machines and equipment to ensure production quality and meet stringent quality standards set by the QCO.
• Import Dependency for Raw Materials: According to a KPMG-FICCI report, India has to import most of the raw materials and machines from China and other Asian countries to manufacture toys.
  • India has to import even the fabric used to make plush toys from China.
• Lack of Technology: India lacks engineering for toy manufacturing such as 3D product prototyping, as it does have certified testing facilities that help meet global quality standards.
  • There’s no toy design institute, nor do our courses have any industry interface. India builds more manual and traditional toys, accounting for just 16% of total toy sales worldwide. 
• HIgh Import Duty on Machinery: There has been an increase in the production of electronic and battery-operated toys in India, but small toy manufacturers cannot buy equipment to produce them because of high import duties.
• Untapped Potential: Within the global toy industry, which boasts a vast market size exceeding 10 lakh crore, India’s current contribution stands at just 1 percent, indicating substantial untapped potential.

Way Forward to the Indian Toy Industry  

• Production-linked incentive (PLI) Scheme for Toy industry: The government needs to introduce the scheme for the toy industry in India as it will foster a manufacturing ecosystem for quality toys for domestic and global markets. 
  • More players will enter the industry, making it a more organized sector and boosting the demand for “made-in-India” toys.
• Fostering Innovation and Creativity: The Indian toy business needs to prioritize innovation and creativity to succeed in the contemporary market. 
  • Toy makers may incorporate technology like augmented reality, virtual reality, and IoT (Internet of Things) into toys as it will help encourage learning and cognitive growth.
• Promoting Entrepreneurship: A thriving ecosystem of toy entrepreneurs may be cultivated with the help of government assistance in the form of finance, education, and infrastructure development.
  • By supporting innovation and entrepreneurship through incubators and research centers, the environment required for long-term success can be created.
  • Reform steps in policy and technology will pave the way for product innovation. For instance, demand for toys based on Chotta Bheem has a huge demand domestically. 
• Learning from Global Leaders:  India can learn about improving per capita consumption of toys from the US which has a strong toy market.
  • On the other hand, China is known as the world’s toy factory. India can leverage its strengths, such as its workforce and technological abilities, to enhance its toy manufacturing capabilities.
• Promoting Industry Competitiveness: The government could assist the sector by establishing additional clusters, providing export subsidies, and including toys in India’s Free Trade Agreements (FTAs).
• Upskilling and Reskilling: Re-skilling the 7 million artisans in the country to help them meet the industry’s evolving demands while framing labor laws and regulations that protect workers’ rights can help reap dividends.
• Joint Collaboration for Competitive Edge: Collaborating between the toy industry and the government is needed to position India as a competitive alternative to existing global toy hubs such as China and Vietnam. These efforts include:
  • Creation and implementation of a dedicated toy policy
  • Setting up of a nodal agency like National Creative Hub (C-Hub)
  • Investing in brand-building
  • Collaborating with regional artisans
  • Strategic tie-ups with global players to leverage science, technology, engineering, art, and math toys.

Conclusion

Toy manufacturing is an ideal sector to boost a sluggish economy. Resolution of quality, skilling, and supply chain challenges will pave the way for the anticipated growth of the Indian toy industry.

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Context: This article is based on the news “IIT Delhi team makes first hi-res landslide risk map for India” which was published in the Hindu. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi has made the first high-resolution landslide susceptibility map for India and the map data is available for free.

National Landslide Susceptibility Map: Background

• In late 2023, torrential rain during the northeast monsoon triggered heavy floods and landslides in multiple States in India, killing hundreds of people.
• It highlights the need for a national landslide susceptibility map to identify the most dangerous areas and help allocate resources for mitigation strategies better. 

About National Landslide Susceptibility Map

• The team from IIT Delhi built a national landslide susceptibility map that uses the latest data and data collection and mapping techniques. 
  • High Resolution: The map, could plot the susceptibility at a resolution of 100 m. 
  • Identified Region: The map acknowledged some high landslide susceptibility, like parts of the foothills of the Himalayas, the Assam-Meghalaya region, and the Western Ghats. 
  • New Insight: It also revealed some previously unknown places with high risk, such as some areas of the Eastern Ghats, north of Andhra Pradesh.

• Leveraging Ensemble Machine Learning Technology: Ensemble machine learning is when multiple machine learning models are used together to average out an oversized impact from any one model.
• Factors Used: They collected information on factors like soil cover, number of trees covering the area, distance from roads or mountains, etc. 
  • They used GeoSadak, an online system with data on the national road network in India, displaying data on roads located outside cities.

About Landslides in India

• Definition of Landslide: It is a movement of a mass of rock, earth, or debris down a slope. 
• Landslide Prone Regions: The regions with fewer trees, closer to road-building activity, and steeper local slopes are more unstable and prone to landslides.

Causes of Landslides in India  

• They can occur on many types of terrain given the right conditions of soil, rock, geological structure, drainage, and slope.
  • Natural Causes: Rainfall, undercutting of slopes due to flooding or excavation, earthquakes, snowmelt, etc. 
  • Anthropogenic Causes: Overgrazing by cattle, terrain cutting and filling, excessive development, etc. 
    • For example, land use changes lead to deforestation and exposure of slopes cut for the development of a key railway project likely contributed to a deadly landslide in the  western Manipur in 2022.

Types of Flows

• Debris Flow: It is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic matter, and slurry flows downslope. They are commonly caused by intense precipitation or rapid snow melt. 
• Earth Flow: It is a downslope viscous flow of fine-grained material saturated with water. 
• Mudflow: A mudflow is a wet or viscous fluid mass of fine and coarse-grained material that flows rapidly along drainage channels. 
• Creep: Creep is the slow, steady, downward movement of material under gravity that occurs in a large area.

Must Read: Interconnected Disaster Risks Report 2023 – UNU-EHS

Overview of Landslides in India

• Increasing Landslides in India: Over the past 50 years, the landslides seem to have increased in magnitude and frequency due to human activities. 
  • For instance, India has improved and expanded its road network in mountainous states under the national Bharatmala Pariyojana (“Road to Prosperity”) initiative. 
  • However, the Copernicus organization recorded more than one landslide per road kilometer along the NH-7 between Rishikesh and Joshimath.

ISRO’s Landslide Atlas of India Findings 

• Global Standing in Landslide Risk: India is among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, where at least one death per 100 sq km is reported in a year.
• Rainfall variability Pattern:  Primary cause of landslides with the Himalayas and the Western Ghats remaining highly vulnerable.
• Land Area Prone to Landslide: Excluding snow-covered areas, approximately 12.6% of the country’s geographical land area.
• Regional Variability: 66.5% of the landslides are reported from the North-western Himalayas, about 18.8% from the North-eastern Himalayas, and about 14.7% from the Western Ghats.

Landslides in the Himalayas

• They have been observed to be the most frequent landslide incidents, because the Himalayas are a comparatively young mountain system and the rock structure is still weak and fragile. 

Major Causes of Landslides in India

External Causes of Landslides

• Undercutting of the foot of the hill slope due to river erosion, quarrying, excavation for canals and roads, etc. 
• Increase in external  loads  such  as  buildings,  reservoirs,  highway  traffic,  stockpiles  of  rocks, accumulation of alluvium on slopes, etc. 
• Increase in unit weight of slope material due to increased water content. 
• Vibrations  due  to  earthquakes,  blasting,  traffic,  etc.,  causing  an increase  in  shearing stresses.  
• Anthropic changes caused by deforestation 
• Undermining caused by tunneling, collapse of underground caverns, seepage erosion, etc. 

Internal Causes of Landslides

• Increase in pore water pressure. 
• Reduction in cohesive strength caused by progressive lateralization. 
• Cracks due to alternate swelling and shrinkage from tension. 
• Presence of faults, joints, bedding planes, cleavage, etc., and their orientation. 
• Freezing and thawing of rocks and soils. 
• Material properties such as compressive strength, shearing strength, etc., of earth material.

Impacts of Landslides

• Economic Impacts: Landslides cause extensive damage to houses, roads, buildings, forests, plantations, and agricultural fields. 
  • According to the Department of Revenue of the Himachal government, Himachal Pradesh has an estimated cost of damage from flood and landslides at over Rs 3738 crore due to the widespread destruction caused by torrential rains during the monsoon from June 24 to July 14 in 2023.
• Social Impacts: In landslide disasters, casualties may not be widespread, except when associated with earthquakes or volcanoes. Fatalities are more where population pressure has prompted settlements in areas vulnerable to landslides. 
  • According to the Statement of Climate of India 2022 released by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD),  heavy rain, floods and landslides claimed 835 lives in India in 2022.
  • Kerala landslide 2021: More than 20 people died in landslides and flooding triggered due to heavy rain. According to India’s National Emergency Response Centre (NERC), 5,223 people have been displaced and moved to 163 temporary relief camps.
  • Mumbai Landslides 2021: At least 30 people died in Mumbai suburbs after several houses collapsed when heavy rain triggered landslides.
• Environmental Impact: Landslides result in habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water pollution, altering ecosystems and jeopardizing biodiversity. The soil displacement contributes to increased erosion, negatively impacting water quality and aquatic life. 

Way Forward 

• Landslide Monitoring involves deploying sensors, satellite imagery, and ground-based instruments to detect ground movement and potential landslide precursors. 
  • For this, the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is planning to install a landslip detection system on the Gap Road stretch of the Kochi-Dhanushkodi National Highway in Munnar to warn the authorities about landslips. 
  • Landslip Detection System: It was developed by the Indian Institute Of Technology-Mandi (IIT-Mandi), the Indian Army, and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). 
• Generation of User-Friendly Landslide Hazard Maps: It covers aspects of reliability and validation of landslide zoning maps in Indian scenarios and landslide zoning by making use of advanced tools such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), Terrestrial Laser Scanners, and very high-resolution Earth Observation (EO) data. 
• Following International Best Practices: Brazil’s SNAKE System: The SNAKE System is the Landslide Early Warning System (LEWS), epitomizing advancements in digital monitoring, forecasting, and alert mechanisms. 
• Creation of a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for Landslide Management: An expert professional group should be constituted at the national level to 
  • Study and decide on risk mitigation strategy for landslides. 
  • To recommend permanent fixing of the identified landslide hotspots. 
• Awareness Programmes: They aim towards a culture of awareness generation and preparedness so that people in society become alert and aware in case of an emergency or take preventive measures before disaster strikes. 

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