Context

The Ear, Nose & Throat (ENT) department at Command Hospital in Pune conducted two piezoelectric Bone Conduction Hearing Implants (BCI).

• It became the first government hospital across the country to procure and conduct successful piezoelectric bone conduction hearing implants.

Active Piezoelectric Bone Conduction Hearing Implant System

• It is an implantable medical electronic device for hearing impaired patients [conductive loss (including aural atresia), mixed hearing loss and single-sided deafness]
• Bone conduction implantation is the definitive hearing solution for certain groups of patients with conductive/ mixed hearing loss or patients with single sided deafness, who are not candidates for cochlear implantation and do not benefit with hearing aids or middle-ear surgery.

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Bone Conduction Implant: How it Works?

• Discovery: Bone conduction implant was discovered by Ludwig van Beethoven, the famous 18th century composer who was almost completely deaf. Beethoven found a way to hear the sound of the piano through his jawbone by attaching a rod to his piano and clenching it in his teeth. 

• Ways of Hearing: 

• • Eardrums (air-conducted or air-transmitted):

    • The vibrations from the environment travel through the air to our eardrums. 
    • The eardrums in turn vibrate, decoding these sound waves into a different type of vibrations that are received by the Cochlea, also known as the inner ear. 
    • The Cochlea is connected to our auditory nerve, which transmits the sounds to our brain.

• • Bones  (bone-conducted or bone-transmitted): 

• • • Bone Conduction bypasses the eardrums whereby the bone conduction devices (such as headphones) perform the role of eardrums. 
    • These devices decode sound waves and convert them into vibrations that can be received directly by the Cochlea so the eardrum is never involved.
    •  The sound reach the ears as vibrations through the bones (or skull) and skin.

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Context

Three new microbial formulations based on granular lime and gypsum have been developed and validated by The ICAR- Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Kozhikode.

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Indian Institute of Spices Research Develops three more Microbial Formulations to Help Farmers Improve Agricultural Productivity

• The formulations are Bactolime, Bactogypsum and Trichogypsum were developed using IISR’s own patent applied-technology.
• Bactolime: It integrates beneficial bacteria or plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria with liming material into a single formulation. 
  • The bacteria will ensure the availability of essential nutrients to plants and  help in enhancing nutrient use efficiency.
  • It will integrate liming material and beneficial bacteria to perform the function of improving the low pH of the soil and ensuring delivery of plant beneficial bacteria through a single product.
• Bacto Gypsum and Trichogypsum: These are gypsum-based bacterial formulations.
  • They will act by buffering the soil pH to a near-neutral level, creating a favorable environment for the establishment of the microbes. 
  • This will improve the physical condition of the soil, enhance the availability of secondary nutrients, and boost overall microbial activity. 
• Another product using this formulation technology, Tricholime, which integrates Trichoderma and lime, was released a few months ago. 

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Context

Recently, the Supreme Court ruled that election candidates have a right to privacy and are not required to disclose every detail of their personal life and belongings to voters.

• Voters have the right to access information necessary for selecting the candidate they wish to vote for.

Voters Right To Know Vs Candidate’s Right to Privacy: Supreme Court Judgment

• Legal Clarification: A candidate’s decision to maintain privacy on matters irrelevant to voters or their candidacy is not considered a ‘corrupt practice’ under the Representation of People Act, 1951.

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• Non-disclosure Not a Significant Defect: The justices stated that such non-disclosure does not constitute a “defect of a substantial nature” under the Act.
• No compulsion to disclose all information: Candidates are not compelled to disclose every aspect of their life to voters for scrutiny at a time of  declaring their assets during elections.
  • SC clarified that candidates don’t need to disclose every small item of movable property, like clothes, shoes, or stationery, unless they hold significant value or reflect on the candidate’s lifestyle and candidacy.
• Assessment of Asset Disclosure: The court stated that each case must be evaluated individually to determine if the non-disclosure of significant assets constitutes a defect or not. 
  • Non Disclosure of luxurious items like Expensive watches: Not sharing details about luxurious items would be considered a substantial defect.
  • Non Disclosure Inexpensive Items: If a candidate and their family own simple, inexpensive assets such as simple watches, omitting their value may not be seen as a problem.
• Objective of Disclosure of assets: As per SC judgment, The candidates’ declaration of assets aimed to promote democratic participation among citizens and empower voters with information to make informed and thoughtful voting decisions.

Other Corrupt Practices Under the Representation of People Act 1951 

• Section 123 of the Act: It  outlines corrupt practices, including bribery, undue influence, spreading false information, and inciting enmity.
• Section 123(3): It  prohibits candidates from using their race, caste, community, or language to gain votes.
• Section 123(4): It expands the definition of corrupt practices to include intentionally spreading false statements that could affect the outcome of the election.

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According to the Representation of People Act 1951, An Elected Representative Can Lose their Position For

• Being convicted of certain offenses.
• Involvement in corrupt practices.
• Failing to declare election expenses.
• Having interests in government contracts or works.

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Context

Recently, The 2024 Plastic Overshoot Day Report was released by Swiss-based research consultancy ‘Earth Action (EA)’. 

Plastic Overshoot Day 2024

• For 2024, Plastic Overshoot Day is projected to occur on September 5th, referring to the day when the amount of plastic waste surpasses the capability of waste management systems to effectively manage. 
  • Based on the country’s Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI) i.e., the ratio of the mismanaged waste and the total waste.

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Key Highlights of the 2024 Plastic Overshoot Day Report 

At India Level: 

• The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: This legislation introduced a series of measures aimed at curbing plastic pollution. 
  • It introduced the concept of EPR to manage plastics in India. 
• Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2021 & 2022 : 

• • The guidelines on EPR coupled with the prohibition of identified single use plastic items.
    • The rules prohibit the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale, and usage of single-use plastics. 
    • Thickness Standards for Plastic Carry Bags: Starting from September 30, 2021, the thickness of plastic carry bags was increased from 50 to 75 microns. This was further augmented to 120 microns, effective from December 31, 2022.
• To ensure effective Plastic Waste Management (PWM) in the country : 
  • ‘Prakriti’, a mascot initiative, was taken by the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to spread greater awareness among masses about small changes that can be sustainably adopted in our lifestyle for a better environment.

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At Global Level: 

To end plastic pollution: 

• UNEA’s Resolution to “End Plastic Pollution.”: 175 countries have endorsed the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5) resolution in Nairobi to End Plastic Pollution and forge an international legally binding agreement by 2024. 
• The fourth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment (INC-4), is scheduled to take place from 23 to 29 April 2024  in Ottawa, Canada.

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Context

Recently, For the first time in India, a Eurasian otter was radio-tagged in the Satpura Tiger Reserve (STR) in Narmadapuram district in Madhya Pradesh. 

Radio-Tagging Eurasian Otters in Satpura Tiger Reserve

• Radio Tagging is jointly carried out by Team of The Satpura Tiger Reserve and the NGO Wildlife Conservation Trust (WCT).
• Except for the smooth-coated otter, there was no evidence of the other two otter species from Central India till 2016 when the first photographic evidence of the Eurasian otter was recorded in STR, extending the species’ geographical range to Central India.

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Eurasian Otter 

• Scientific Name of Eurasian Otter: Lutra lutra.
• About : 
  • It  is a captivating semiaquatic mammal native to Eurasia. 
  • They are shy and nocturnal and are found near small streams in the interior forests and hunt their prey during the night.
• Habitat: The Eurasian otter lives in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas. 
• Distribution: It is distributed throughout three continents i.e., Europe, Asia and Africa. In India, it occurs in Northern India, Central India  and southern India. 
• Conservation Status: 
  • IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Near Threatened 
  • Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Appendix I 
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I 

Why the Radio-collar Study of Eurasian Otters Significant?

• The radio-collar study will help to collect fine-scale data on the home ranges, movement, activity patterns, and habitat suitability of the Eurasian otters in the landscape.
• To understand and address the complex interactions between climate change, forests, freshwater availability, biodiversity.
  • Monitoring aquatic species like the Eurasian otter is critical for assessing the health and resilience of aquatic ecosystems.

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Context

Recently, Apple issued alerts to iPhone users in 92 countries including India,cautioning them from mercenary spyware attacks including Pegasus.

• In October 2023, similar warnings were dispatched to politicians across various Indian political parties, hinting at the potential state-sponsored spyware attack on iPhones.

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Difference Between Malware and Spyware

• Malware, short for “malicious software,” includes viruses and spyware that can steal personal information, send spam, and commit fraud. 
  • Criminals use appealing websites, desirable downloads, and compelling stories to lure consumers to links that will download malware – especially on computers that don’t use adequate security software. 
• Spyware is one type of malware that can monitor or control your computer use. 
  • It may be used to send consumers pop-up ads, redirect their computers to unwanted websites, monitor their Internet surfing, or record their keystrokes, which, in turn, could lead to identity theft. 

Mercenary Spyware 

• Mercenary spyware is designed to remotely infiltrate and compromise smartphones, used to monitor movements and communications, steal private data, etc. and other devices without the knowledge or consent of the users. 
• These attacks are highly complex, targeting specific individuals with exceptional resources, surpassing regular cybercriminal activity and consumer malware. 
• They are difficult to detect and prevent due to their substantial investment and short lifespan. 
• In some cases, governments, intelligence agencies, and law enforcement bodies have reportedly bought mercenary spyware wherein political opponents, Activist, corporate espionage and financial fraud are often targeted.

Examples of Mercenary Spyware 

Companies producing mercenary spyware include the NSO Group, FinFisher, and Hacking Team. 

• NSO Group’s flagship spyware Pegasus, which has been bought by various governments, helps infiltrate devices remotely and access calls, emails, messages, and other files. 
• Finfisher’s products like FinSpy can capture keystrokes and access data besides activating microphones and cameras without permission. 
• The Hacking Team’s Galileo aka Remote Control System (RCS) also can capture keystrokes and record video calls besides accessing the camera and microphone.

Pegasus Spyware

• Pegasus is a spyware developed and marketed by Israeli cybersecurity firm NSO. 
• Pegasus has the ability to execute operator commands, and send back private data, passwords, contact lists, calendar events, text messages, and live voice calls.

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Context

Recently,  The Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor 2024 report was released by the non-profit New Climate Institute with assistance from Carbon Market Watch.

Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor Report 2024

• The report evaluated climate targets of 51 major corporate companies worldwide.
• These companies collectively generated $6.1 trillion revenue in 2022 and reported emitting 8.8 gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent, roughly equal to India, Russia, and Brazil combined.
  • This accounts for approximately 16% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022.

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About Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor (CCRM)

• CCRM stands for Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor (CCRM). 
• It assigns Integrity scores ranging from “High” to “Very Poor” on a 5-point scale based on this evaluation.

• Key Areas of Corporate Climate Action:

• • Emissions Tracking and Disclosure: This involves monitoring and revealing emissions data.
  • Setting Emission Reduction Targets: Companies establish goals to reduce carbon emissions.
  • Reducing Own Emissions: Actions are taken to decrease a company’s own emissions.
  • Addressing Unabated and Residual Emissions: Efforts are made to manage and take responsibility for emissions that cannot be eliminated. 

Key findings From the Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor Report

• Emission Reduction Targets Fall Short:

  • 30% emission by 2030: The 51 largest companies assessed by CCRM are only on track to reduce emissions by 30% by 2030, relative to 2019 levels.
    • This falls short of the significant reductions required to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
  • 50% emission by 2030:Only 7 out of 51 companies have targets that aim for a reduction of more than 50% by 2030.

• Corporate Companies Performance in Emission Reduction Plans:

• • The CCRM’s Integrity Score shows no company achieving the highest level of transparency and accountability for meeting their targets.
    • Danone, Iberdrola, Mars, and Volvo Group demonstrate stronger plans compared to others.
    • H&M, Nike, and Inditex have plans but it is inadequate to achieve their targets.
    • Walmart hasn’t updated targets since 2016, and Volkswagen dropped its interim 2025 target without a replacement.

• Challenges in Meeting Climate Targets:

  • Controversial Solutions: The report reveals that many countries rely on controversial methods to meet their targets, such as carbon capture, transitional fuels, and bioenergy.
  • Slow Progress: While companies are making gradual progress on their climate goals, they are falling short of achieving the necessary emissions reduction to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
  • Risk of Accountability Evasion: There’s a danger that companies might avoid responsibility by using carbon offsets. 
    • A proposed framework for offsetting Scope 3 emissions could exacerbate this issue.

• Risk of Offsets Loophole:

  • The report identifies a potential loophole in carbon offsetting methodologies that could weaken accountability for Scope 3 emissions (those from the supply chain).
  • The offsets loophole

• • • Scope 1 Emissions: These come from a company’s direct activities, like its own production processes, causing emissions.
    • Scope 2 Emissions: This relates to a company’s energy usage, such as the electricity it consumes.
    • Scope 3 Emissions: These stem from sources outside a company’s direct control, like emissions produced when customers use its products.
      • Importance of Scope 3: Scope 3 emissions make up most emissions across various industries.

• Proposed Changes in Carbon Offsetting:

  • VCMI Proposal: VCMI introduced a “beta Scope 3 Flexibility Claim,” allowing companies to offset up to 50% of their Scope 3 emissions.
  • Acceptance by SBTi: SBTi, a major validator of corporate targets, agreed to consider carbon offsetting as a means to address Scope 3 emissions.
    • However, it is unclear if the VCMI proposal will be linked to SBTi.

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• Over reliance on Voluntary Reporting:

  • Voluntary Nature: Climate targets set by corporate companies are voluntary and assessed by standard-setting bodies to determine their robustness.
  • Validation Frameworks: Bodies like SBTi, Transition Pathways Initiative, and MSCI Net Zero Tracker validate these targets, lending legitimacy to company goals.
  • Shortcomings of the System: While over 1,000 companies have outlined emission reduction plans under this voluntary system, there are gaps in progressing towards these targets and ensuring accountability.

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Context

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has released its recommendations on Encouraging Innovative Technologies, Services, Use Cases, and Business Models through Regulatory Sandbox in Digital Communication Sector.

TRAI Proposes Regulatory Sandbox For Digital Communication Sector

• The Department of Telecommunications wrote to the TRAI requesting its recommendations regarding a regulatory sandbox framework for new services, technologies, and business models in the digital communication industry.
• The TRAI then published a Consultation Paper (CP), inviting feedback from stakeholders.  
• Objective: To provide an environment in which new technologies, services, use cases and business models can be tested in live networks, or existing functions or processes can be refined.
• The DoT has also issued guidelines to establish and operate ‘Spectrum Regulatory Sandbox’ (SRS) or ‘WiTe Zones (Wireless Test Zones)’ to promote R&D activities, outdoor testing/experimentation in the field of emerging new radio communications technologies.

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What is a Regulatory Sandbox (RS)?

• It  refers to a live testing environment where new products, services, processes, and business models may be deployed, on a limited set of users, for a specified period of time, with certain relaxations as per  the provisions of the Telecommunication Act 2023.
• Purpose: The sandbox allows the regulator, the innovators, the service providers and the customers to conduct field tests and collect evidence on the benefits and risks of new product innovations, while carefully monitoring and containing their risks.
• It makes possible real-time but regulated access to telecom networks and customer resources, unlike in conventional methods of lab testing or pilots. 
• Types of Regulatory Sandbox: Regulatory sandboxes vary from country to country, and are usually run by local regulators.
  • Financial technology (fintech) sandboxes: This is the most widespread type of regulatory sandbox, focusing on encouraging innovation in the fintech sector. They cover areas like payments, insurance, blockchain-based solutions,etc.
    • SEBI and IRDAI and RBI have announced their specific sandbox
  • Technology sandboxes: These sandboxes allows businesses to experiment with new technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, and other developing and emerging high-tech areas.
  • Cybersecurity sandboxes and innovation hubs: These sandboxes allow businesses involved in cybersecurity to simulate cyberattacks and test security solutions in a controlled-risk environment to identify vulnerabilities. 
  • Transportation sandboxes: They support the development of autonomous vehicles (cars or drones), smart transport systems, and other innovative transportation solutions. Example: Canada offers a Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems regulatory sandbox.
  • Healthcare sandboxes: They enable businesses to develop innovative medical devices, services, and pharmaceutical products (i.e. for early prediction of diseases) under regulatory supervision. Example: Sandbox for Telemedicine and Mobile Medicine by the Singapore Ministry of Health.

• Advantages of Regulatory Sandbox (RS)

  • Real time access: It is expected to give the Digital Communication industry’s startup ecosystem access to real network environments and other data of telecom networks to help test the reliability of new applications before bringing them to market.
  • Cross sector cooperation: It  provides a RS framework that enables various digital communication sector entities to work together in a structured manner.
  • Boost startup ecosystem:  To synergize the efforts of innovators, startups, telecommunications companies, government agencies, and regulators to boost innovation and start-up eco system.
  • Entrepreneurial Innovation: Providing such a framework for live testing in India will encourage more entrepreneurs to develop solutions for the digital communication industry of the country as well as the world. 
  • Societal benefits: TRAI has recognized that some of the innovations can have potential to bridge the digital divide and bring socio-economic advancement to under privileged sections of the society, if deployed on wider scale.

• Challenges of Regulatory Sandbox (RS)

• • Limited scope and duration: Mostly, regulatory sandboxes operate within a specific scope and timeframe ie. that firms can only apply during a specific application window,  limiting companies or technologies from fully realizing their potential within the sandbox environment. 
  • Potential for regulatory arbitrage: In some cases, participants might use sandboxes to exploit regulatory loopholes or completely avoid regulations.
  • Potential data privacy issues: Data privacy breaches may occur in a  regulatory sandbox environment due to  reduced regulatory scrutiny, new and unproven technologies, or a lack of experience in dealing with cybersecurity or data privacy practices.

TRAI Recommendations

• Eligibility: Indian companies or partnership firms, limited liability partnerships or a research institute who have done limited prior testing of their products/services/applications can apply for regulatory sandbox testing.
• Essential requirements in application: Applicants need to provide details of regulatory exemptions sought, risk mitigation safeguards proposed, consumer protection mechanism suggested, and a well-defined exit strategy
  • To ensure accountability on part of Government agencies involved, strict timelines have been provided for completing the application evaluation process. 
• Deadline: The validity of the permission will be for a period of up to 12 months, with provisions for terminating and extending the period in place.
• Oversight Mechanism: An overseeing body has been proposed to monitor and evaluate regulatory sandbox testing so as to keep it on track and take necessary corrective measures.
• Funding: TRAI  has recommended that deserving innovations may be considered to get funding support for testing under RS Framework under Clause 25 (b), (c) and (d) of the Telecommunication Act’ 2023. 

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Context

The President of India, Smt. Droupadi Murmu extended warm wishes on the eve of Vaisakhi, Vishu, Bishub, Bahag Bihu, Poila Boishakh, Vaishakhadi and Puthandu.  

• These traditional festivals mark the beginning of the new year in different states in India. 

List of New Year Festivals in India

Here is a list of traditional “New Year Festivals in India”; 

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• Vaisakhi: 

  • Celebration: Vaishakhadi is celebrated in Punjab for the Punjabi New Year.
  • Community: Sikhs community. 
  • Historical Significance: It commemorates the formation of the Khalsa Panth by Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1699.
  • Harvest Celebration: Additionally, it serves as a harvest festival, rejoicing over the readiness of crops for harvesting.
  • Traditional Customs: During Vaishakhadi, people visit gurdwaras, participate in processions called Nagar Kirtan, and indulge in traditional Punjabi music and dance like Bhangra and Gidda.

• Vishu:

  • Celebration: Vishu is a Hindu festival celebrated as the New Year Day in Kerala.
  • Deities: On Vishu day, people worship Vishnu and his incarnation, Krishna.
  • Timing: Typically, Vishu falls in the month of April.

• Bishub (Pohela Boishakh):

  • Celebration: It is Celebrated on the first day of the Bengali calendar.
  • Significance: It Marks the start of the Bengali New Year. 
    • It is also known as Poila Boishakh.
  • State: This festival is celebrated in West Bengal and Bangladesh.
  • Activities: Cities host fairs where people greet each other with “Shubho Nobobarsho.”
  • Special Dish: Panta Ilish (fermented rice with hilsa fish) is a special dish for this occasion.

• Bahag Bihu:

  • Timing: This festival is celebrated around mid-April. 
  • It’s Assam’s harvest festival and also marks the beginning of the Assamese New Year.
  • Types of Bihu: There are three types of Bihu: 
    • Rongali or Bohag Bihu in April 
    • Kongali or Kati Bihu in October or November
    • Bhogali or Magh Bihu in January.
  • Celebrations: Bihu dance performances, feasting, and community gatherings are common.   
  • Meji Tradition: To signal the end of the harvest season, people light bonfires called Meji.

• Gudi Padwa:

  • Celebration: This festival is Celebrated in Maharashtra by Marathi and Konkani Hindu people.
  • Other Name: Samvatsar Padvo.
  • Significance:It marks the beginning of the Hindu solar year.
    • It is also the first day of the bright phase of the moon. 
  • Date: It occurs on the initial day of the Hindu month of Chaitra.
  • Rituals: People take a holy bath, visit temples, and exchange greetings.
  • Deity worship: Lord Brahma
  • Gudi (a decorated pole) is hoisted outside homes.
    • Gudi Dvaja: This special setup includes a cloth, often a saree or dhoti, adorned with flowers, mango leaves, and neem leaves.

• Puthandu (Tamil New Year):

• • Timing: It marks the start of Tamil Nadu’s New Year, usually in mid-April.
  • Significance: The first day of the year on the Tamil calendar is celebrated as a festival by Tamil people worldwide.
  • Traditions: People make Kolam, intricate floor designs, cook a special dish called Mango Pachadi, and visit temples.

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Context

Mount Etna Smoke: Mount Etna, the largest volcano in Europe, has been sending up almost perfect rings of smoke into the air.

• The Mount Etna Smoke rings are a rare phenomenon that scientists refer to as volcanic vortex rings, which are produced roughly in the same way as the smoke rings that some cigarette smokers are able to blow out of their mouths.

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About Mount Etna

• Geographical Location: Mount Etna is on the east coast of Sicily, (Italy) which is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Its strategic location influences both local climate and agricultural practices due to its volcanic ash contributing to fertile soil.
• Physical Features: The summit of Mount Etna features five main craters which are the primary sources of its frequent eruptions. 
  • Additionally, the mountain is dotted with over 300 vents that vary in size. These vents are scattered along its slopes and contribute to both summit and flank eruptions.
• Eruption Episodes:  Mount Etna is one of the most continuously active volcanoes in the world, with an eruptive history that dates back over 500,000 years. The volcano has experienced numerous eruptive events since 1600, including:
  • Summit Eruptions: Notable summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007-08, twice in 2012, 2018, and most recently in 2021.
  • Flank Eruptions: Significant flank eruptions took place in 2001, 2002-03, 2004-05, and 2008-09.
• World Heritage Site: Mount Etna has been designated a World Heritage Site since 2013. According to UNESCO, the volcano’s eruptive history can be traced back 500,000 years, out of which 2,700 years of this activity has been documented.

About Volcanoes

• According to the US Geological Survey: “Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth’s surface.”
• They can be found on land and in the ocean and are formed when material significantly hotter than its surroundings is erupted onto the surface of the Earth. 
• The material could be liquid rock (known as “magma”, when it’s underground and “lava” when it breaks through the surface), ash, and/or gasses.
• According to NASA, the rise of magma can take place in three different ways. 
  • Divergence: When tectonic plates (massive, irregularly shaped slabs of solid rock that carry both continents and oceans and are constantly in motion) move away from each other. The magma rises up to fill in the space.
  • Convergence: When the plates move towards each other part of Earth’s crust can be forced deep into its interior. The high heat and pressure cause the crust to melt and rise as magma.
  • Hotspots: Magma also rises at the hotspots i.e. hot areas inside of the Earth, where magma gets heated up. As magma gets warmer, it becomes less dense, leading to its rise.

Different Types of Volcanoes

• According to the British Geological Survey, the type of volcano depends on the viscosity of the magma, the amount of gas in the magma, the composition of the magma, and the way the magma reaches the surface.

• Major Types of Volcanoes: 

• • Stratovolcano/Composite Volcanoes: They are steep-sided volcanoes composed of many layers of volcanic rocks, usually made from high-viscosity lava, ash and rock debris. 
    • These types of volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows in alternate layers, the strata that give rise to the name.
  • Cinder Cones: Cinder cones are circular or oval cones made up of small fragments of lava from a single vent that have been blown up. 
    • Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics that build up around the vent. Most cinder cones erupt only once.
  • Shield Volcano: These volcanoes are shaped like a bowl or shield in the middle with long gentle slopes made by basaltic lava flows. These are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent.
    • Shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland, as well.
  • Lava Domes: They are formed when erupting lava is too thick to flow and makes a steep-sided mound as the lava piles up near the volcanic vent. They are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava.

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Distribution of Volcanoes Around the World

There are about 500 volcanoes in the world. Most of these volcanoes are found in

three well defined belts. 

• The Circum-Pacific Belt: 

  • Circum-Pacific region has the greatest concentration of volcanoes, that is why it is called ‘Pacific Ring of Fire‘. It is a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean. 
    • This ring extends along the Andes mountains of South America to Alaska and from the Aleutian Islands to Japan, Philippines, Indonesia to New Zealand.
    • Major Volcanoes: Mount St. Helena, Mauna Loa,Mount Ruapehu, Mount Krakatoa, Mount Fuji.

• The Mid-World Mountain Belt: 

  • The Mid-world mountain belt occupies the second position with regard to the numbers of volcanoes. 
    • It runs from Alps in Europe to Asia Minor and crossing through Himalayan region joins the Circum-Pacific belt
    • Major Volcanoes Mt. Stromboli , Mt. Vesuvius , Mt. Karakoram 
    • India’s only active volcano is located in Barren island of Andaman, which is also the only confirmed active volcano in South Asia

• The African Rift Valley Belt:

• • The African Rift Valley region ranks third. Most of the volcanoes are extinct here. 
    • Mt. Cameroon is the only active volcano which is situated in Central West Africa.
    • Other Volcanoes: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, Mount Longonot

About Volcanic Vortex Rings

• Volcanic vortex rings are circular loops of gasses, predominantly water vapor, that are expelled into the air in a ring-like formation through a vent in the crater.The vent that has opened up in Mount Etna’s crater is almost perfectly circular, thus the rings that have been seen above it are also circular.
• These rings can remain in the air for up to 10 minutes, but tend to disintegrate quickly if conditions are windy and turbulent.

• Formation of Volcanic Vortex Rings:

  • Rapid Gas Emission: The formation involves rapid ejection of gas through a narrow circular conduit in a volcano’s crater. This rapid expulsion is the initial trigger for the development of the vortex ring.
  • Pressure and Motion Dynamics: Similar to dolphins blowing bubble rings, the volcanic gasses are compressed and pushed through the vent, which creates a high-pressure pulse that molds the gas into a circular vortex.
  • Stabilization and Travel: Once formed, the cohesive forces within the gas maintain the ring’s structure, allowing it to rise intact through the atmosphere unless disrupted by external forces like wind.

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• Significance of Volcanic Vortex Rings:

• • Research Value: Studying volcanic vortex rings helps scientists understand eruption dynamics and plume behavior, which are critical for predicting ash dispersion and assessing aviation risks.
  • Environmental Impact: Understanding these rings also aids in evaluating the environmental impact of the ash and gasses released during eruptions, which can affect air quality and climate.
• Volcanic vortex rings have been observed at volcanoes such as Redoubt in Alaska, Tungurahua in Ecuador, Pacaya in Guatemala, Eyjafjallajökull and Hekla in Iceland, Stromboli in Italy, Aso and Sakurajima in Japan, Yasur in Vanuatu, Whakaari in New Zealand etc.
• Mt Etna is well known for producing Volcanic Vortex rings. It was found that Mt Etna produced dozens of gas rings every day last year too.

Positive Consequences of Volcanic Eruptions

Positive consequences of volcanic eruptions are;

• Climatic Benefits:

  • Solar Radiation Cooling: Volcanic particles can shade incoming solar radiation, causing temporary cooling effects on the planet that may last from months to years.

• Agricultural and Ecological Benefits:

  • Soil Fertility: The breakdown of some types of volcanic ash and lava contributes to soil rich in nutrients, enhancing land for crops and forest growth.
  • Creation of New Landforms: Volcanoes form islands, plateaus, and mountains, which can be rich in minerals and fertile soils.

• Economic and Geothermal Advantages:

• • Mineral Resources: Volcanic activity brings valuable mineral resources to the surface, including metallic ores and diamonds.
  • Geothermal Energy: Regions with volcanic activity often have potential for geothermal power generation, tapping into the Earth’s internal heat.
  • Tourism and Recreation: Volcanic landscapes attract tourists, benefiting local economies and sometimes leading to the establishment of national parks centered around volcanic features.

Negative Consequences of Volcanic Eruptions

Negative consequences of volcanic eruptions are;

• Environmental and Climatic Hazards:

  • Stratospheric Ash: Volcanic ashes can remain in the stratosphere for 2-5 years, where they participate in chemical reactions that destroy ozone molecules.
  • Greenhouse Gasses: Eruptions release large amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and water vapor, contributing to global warming.
  • Loss of Flora and Fauna: Lava flows can destroy entire ecosystems, killing plants and animals which serve as carbon sinks.

• Human and Structural Damage:

  • Physical Destruction: Advancing lava can engulf cities and landscapes, while pyroclastic materials like cinders and volcanic bombs can cause fatalities and injuries.
  • Volcanic Earthquakes and Mudflows: Associated seismic activity and lahars (mudflows of volcanic ash mixed with water) can devastate nearby areas.
  • Health Risks: Eruptions can cause respiratory illnesses, burns, and injuries due to falls, while ash can lead to hazardous driving conditions and deteriorate water quality.

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• Economic Impacts:

• • Agricultural Disruption: Ash fall can damage crops and reduce periods of rain, negatively impacting agricultural productivity.
  • Tsunamis: In coastal regions, underwater volcanic activity can trigger tsunamis, causing extensive damage.

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Context

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands administration recently sought help from the Wildlife Institute of India to manage the teeming population of chital (spotted deer) in Ross Island (officially known as the Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island).

About Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): 

  • It defines Invasive Alien Species (IAS) as “species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural past or present distribution threatens biological diversity”. 
    • These include animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms, and can influence all kinds of ecosystems.

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• Characteristics of Invasive Alien Species:

  • “Arrive, Survive and Thrive”– As per CBD, Invasive Alien Species need an introduction either through natural or human intervention, survive on native food resources, reproduce at a fast rate, and edge out native species in the competition over resources.
    • Example: The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) found that the co-occurrence of lantana and Pogostemon benghalensis  caused a “significant decline in the richness of native plants and that of palatable plants” in Madhya Pradesh’s Kanha Tiger Reserve.

• Some Examples of Invasive Alien Species in India

• • The list of invasive alien species  in India is dominated by certain species of fish such as the African catfish, Nile tilapia, red-bellied piranha, and alligator gar, and turtle species such as the red-eared slider.
  • Lantana camara: Its invasion has resulted in the scarcity of native forage plants for wild herbivores; it has invaded more than 40% of India’s tiger range.
  • Prosopis Chilensis: A drought-resistant plant native to the arid regions of South American countries is threatening the native vegetation of islands in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve.
  • Prosopis juliflora: It is a water-guzzling invasive species which extracts maximum water from the ground impacting the groundwater levels adversely affecting local biodiversity and ecology.

Reason for the Spread of Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Globalization: It has resulted in greater trade, transport, travel and tourism, all of which can facilitate the introduction and spread of Invasive Alien Species.
• Climate Change: Warming temperatures and climate change could favour the “expansion of invasive species’’.
  • Example: Warmer winters allow insects like the Asian longhorned beetle (native to eastern Asia) to survive in colder regions, posing a threat to hardwood forests.
• Habitat Degradation: With rising urbanisation, construction projects, deforestation, and unsustainable land-use changes are also increasing and disrupting and degrading the native ecosystems and allowing Invasive Alien Species to establish themselves in those habitats easily.
• Anthropogenic Reasons: Some IAS were intentionally introduced for economic reasons, such as agriculture, aquaculture, or ornamental plants. 
  • Example: Lantana camara is a commonly found decorative plant, and has colonised national parks across the country. Its spread has resulted in changes in ecosystem function, and the shrinking of native species indigenous to a particular region.
• Inadequate Biosecurity Measures: Measures such as inadequate inspection protocols for imported goods, insufficient regulations on the movement of potentially Invasive Alien Species are one of the major reasons for the spread of IAS.
• Lack of Awareness: Public ignorance, inadequate management strategies, and insufficient funding and resources for research, monitoring, and eradication programs are other major reasons for the spread of Invasive Alien Species.

Challenges of Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Ecological Challenges with Invasive Alien Species

  • Impact on the Balance of the Ecosystem: Invasive Alien Species act as disruptors in the food chain and disturb the balance of the ecosystem. In habitats where there is no competition, IAS can dominate the entire ecosystem.
    • Examples: In Keoladeo Park, Bharatpur in Rajasthan, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site, the African catfish has been known to prey on water fowls and migratory birds as well.
      • The proliferation of chital in the Andamans has affected the regeneration of native vegetation, as the deer are known to consume seeds and seedlings.
  • Threat to Biodiversity: Invasive Alien Species are one of the five major direct drivers of biodiversity loss globally, alongside land and sea use change, direct exploitation of organisms, climate change, and pollution.
    • IAS have been a major factor in 60% and the only driver in 16% of global animal and plant extinctions that have been recorded, and at least 218 invasive alien species have been responsible for more than 1,200 local extinctions.
  • Impact on Climate Change: Climate change is predicted to increase the competitive ability of some IAS, extending the area suitable for them and offering new opportunities for introductions and establishment. IAS can also amplify the impacts of climate change.
    • Invasive Alien Species reduces the resilience of natural habitats, making them more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. 
      • Example: Some grasses and trees that have become Invasive Alien Species can significantly alter fire regimes, especially in areas that are becoming warmer and drier.
      • IAS, especially trees and grasses, can sometimes be highly flammable and promote more intense forest fires.

• Challenges on Invasive Alien Species Regulations:

  • Narrowly Defined: In India, the legal definition of Invasive Alien Species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (amended in 2022), is narrower, and are defined as “species of animal or plant which is not native to India, and whose introduction or spread may threaten or adversely impact wildlife or its habitat.” 
    • It leaves out species within India which might be invasive to a particular region like the chital in Andamans, which are protected in mainland India, but have become a menace in the island chain.
  • Weak Threat Management: Only 17% have enacted specific national laws or regulations for IAS management.
    • 45% of all countries do not invest in the management of Invasive Alien Species. It escalates the threat of IAS spilling over into neighboring states.

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• Geographical Implications with Invasive Alien Species

• • Progressive Increase: It is estimated that by 2050, the total number of alien species will be 33% higher than the number observed in 2005.
  • High Geographical Impact: 34% of the impacts of biological invasions were reported from the Americas, 31% from Europe and Central Asia, 25% from Asia and the Pacific and about 7% from Africa. 
    • Most negative impacts are reported on land (about 75%) with considerably fewer reported in freshwater (14%) and marine (10%) habitats . 
      • Invasive Alien Species are most damaging on islands, with numbers of alien plants now exceeding the number of native plants on more than 25% of all islands.

• Socio-Economic Challenges with Invasive Alien Species

  • Cultural and Recreational Impacts: Invasive plants may alter the aesthetics of landscapes, impacting recreational experiences and consecutively affects the tourism sector and local economy of the region.
  • Social Implications: Disproportionately affecting marginalized communities. 
    • These impacts exacerbate existing inequities, posing threats to livelihoods and exacerbating environmental degradation in already vulnerable areas.
  • Spread of Diseases: Invasive Alien Species like Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti spread diseases such as malaria, Zika and West Nile Fever.
  • High Anthropogenic Introduction: As per Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report, 37,000 alien species have been introduced by human activities to regions and biomes around the world.
    • Many Invasive Alien Species have been intentionally introduced for their perceived benefits, without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts.
  • Impact on Food Supply: The reduction of food supply is the most common impact of alien invasive species. 
    • Example: Caribbean false mussels have damaged locally important fishery resources in Kerala, by wiping out native clams and oysters. 
  • As per Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report, the global economic cost of IAS was over $423 billion annually in 2019. These costs arise out of the damage IAS inflict on an area’s natural ecosystem.
    • Invasive Alien Species cost the Indian economy $127.3 billion (Rs. 8.3 trillion) in the last 6 decades.
    • As per India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan of 2019, published by the National Biodiversity Authority, the cotton mealy bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis) is an invasive species native to North America, which has severely affected cotton crops in the Deccan, leading to yield losses.

Global Regulatory Framework for Management of Invasive Alien Species

• United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992: It emphasizes the need to prevent the introduction of, control, or eradicate invasive alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species.
• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, 2022: It has been agreed under the UN CBD and aims to reduce the rate of introduction and establishment of invasive alien species by at least 50% by 2030.
• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species, 1979: It aims to conserve migratory species and includes measures to control or eliminate invasive alien species already present.
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1975: It focuses on ensuring international trade that does not threaten the survival of wild animals and plants and considers the impact of invasive species involved in trade.
• Global Invasive Species Programme: It supports research, capacity building, and management strategies to address invasive species issues worldwide.
• The Invasive Species Specialist Group: A global network of scientific and policy experts on invasive species, organized under the auspices of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
• International Plant Protection Convention: An intergovernmental treaty that aims to protect the world’s plants, agricultural products, and natural resources from plant pests. It aims to mitigate the introduction and spread of invasive species.

Knowledge Platforms:

• The Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT): It is the IUCN global standard for measuring the severity of environmental impacts caused by animals, fungi and plants living outside their natural range. 
• The Global Invasive Species Database: It is managed by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) and the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species is an ISSG led initiative. 
• The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: It also holds information on the impacts of invasive alien species (IAS), and an analysis of how IAS contribute to species global extinction risk.

Regulatory Framework for Management of Invasive Alien Species in India

• National Biodiversity Action Plan: It set out the National Biodiversity Targets which aims to develop management strategies for Invasive Alien Species.
• Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order 2003: Under this, any import of plants or seeds into the country should be inspected for the potential risk of pests. 
• Wildlife (Protection) Amendment (WPA) Bill 2021: It provides for a regulatory framework for IAS in the Indian environmental legislative regime.
• Biological Diversity Act of 2002, and the National Biodiversity Authority Act of 2002: For the conservation of biological diversity aid in the management of threats of invasive species.
• National Action Plan on Invasive Alien Species (NAPINVAS): Launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) that focuses on the prevention, early detection, control, and management of invasive species.
• The National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC): It provides information and resources on invasive species in India.
• The Himalayan Environmental Foundation: It is working to control invasive species like Lantana camara in the Himalayas.
• The Centre for Wildlife Studies: It is studying the impacts of invasive species on Indian ecosystems.

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Way Forward to Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Incorporating Invasive Alien Species in Climate Change Policies: Climate change should be explicitly incorporated into risk assessments of IAS, to help identify those alien species that could become a threat in the future.
  • Example: Native tree species should be used for carbon sequestration or erosion control rather than alien species such as Acacia or Eucalyptus.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): It may include biological control, chemical control, and mechanical control methods, applied in a strategic and environmentally sustainable manner to combat Invasive Alien Species.
• Mapping Vulnerability: Ecosystems need to be prioritised according to their vulnerability to climate change and IAS and measures need to be established for preventing IAS introduction. 
• Follow Prevention Measures: Border biosecurity and strictly enforced import controls has worked in controlling the spread.
  • Example: Success has been achieved in Australasia in reducing the spread of the brown marmorated stink bug.
• Protecting Marine & Connected Water Systems: Preparedness, early detection and rapid response are shown to be effective at reducing rates of IAS establishment. 
• Surveillance of New IAS: The PlantwisePlus programme in Australia assisted smallholder farmers in Africa, Asia and Latin America in detecting new alien species.
• Eradication: It has been successful and cost-effective for small and slow-spreading IAS, in isolated ecosystems such as islands. 
  • Examples: French Polynesia where the black rat and rabbit (have been successfully eradicated. 
• Containment: Invasive Alien Species must be contained and controlled in land-based and closed water systems as well as in aquaculture.
  • Containment of the IAS Asian tunicate in aqua-cultured blue mussels in Canada. 
  • Introducing a rust fungus to control bitter vine in the Asia-Pacific region has been effective with success in more than 60% of known cases.
• Global Collaboration: World needs to share information, resources, and expertise across borders that would become essential to address the menace of IAS on a global scale.
• Involvement of Local Communities: Successful eradication programmes depend on the support and engagement of stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Also, habitat restoration and rehabilitation of native vegetation with local communities can help in promoting ecosystem recovery.

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