Context

Recently, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has turned down the request from small finance banks (SFB) to drop the “small finance” tag from their name.

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has turned down the request from small finance banks (SFB) to drop the “small finance” tag from their name, saying that SFBs are differentiated banks with specific objectives like financial inclusion.

About Small Finance Banks (SFBs)

• Background: Dr. Raghuram Rajan’s Committee on Financial Sector Reforms recommended the notion of Small Finance Banks in its 2009 report titled ‘A Hundred Small Steps’.
• Small Finance Banks (SFBs) are specialized banks in India that focus on the financial needs of underserved and unserved population segments, such as small business units, micro and small businesses, and unorganized sector entities. 

Objectives of Small Finance Banks (SFBs)

• Financial Inclusion: SFBs seek to promote financial inclusion by meeting the needs of small businesses, small and marginal farmers, micro and small enterprises, and unorganized sectors.
• Not Exclusive: Although its primary focus is financial inclusion, SFBs are open to more than just these sectors.

Promoters and Structure of SFBs

• Promoters of Small Finance Banks: Individuals, corporations, trusts, or societies can promote small finance banks.
• Legal Structure: They are formed as public limited companies in the private sector, licenced under the Banking Regulation Act of 1949, and supervised by the RBI Act of 1934.

Area of Operations of SFBs

• No Restrictions: Unlike regional rural banks (RRBs) and local area banks, SFBs can operate without restriction in terms of location.
• Capital Requirement: The minimum capital requirement for SFBs is 100 crores.

Regulatory Framework For SFBs

• Compliance: SFBs are subject to all RBI prudential rules and regulations that apply to existing commercial banks, including maintaining the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
• Priority Sector Lending (PSL): SFBs must extend 75% of the credit to sectors classified as priority sector lending by the Reserve Bank.

SFBs: Branches and Rural Presence 

• Branches: At least 25% of SFB branches should be in unbanked rural areas.
• Loan Portfolio: A minimum of 50% of the loan portfolio should consist of loans and advances of up to 25 lakhs.

Non-Risk Sharing Financial Services

• Allowed operations: SFBs may engage in non-risk-sharing financial services operations that do not involve a commitment of funds. These include distributing mutual fund units, insurance policies, pension plans, etc.
• Foreign Exchange:  SFBs can establish dealerships in the foreign exchange market.

Conversion and Licensing

• Conversion: Existing NBFCs, microfinance institutions, and local banks can choose to convert into Small Finance Banks.
• On-Tap Licencing: In 2019, the RBI implemented a ‘on-tap’ licensing process, which allows it to accept applications and award licenses to SFBs throughout the year.

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Context

Recently, India abstained on a resolution at the Human Rights Council that called on Israel for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza.

India Abstains on UN Resolution on Gaza Ceasefire

• Introduction of the UN Resolution On Gaza Ceasefire: Pakistan introduced the resolution on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
• Abstention by India: India’s abstention is regarded to be consistent with previous votes on resolutions that did not criticize Hamas.
• Past Resolutions: It voted in favour of three further resolutions condemning Israel’s conduct against Palestinians and advocating for Palestinian rights.
• Countries Against the Resolution on Gaza Ceasefire: The United States, Germany, and four other countries voted against the motion, while India was one of 13 countries that abstained.
• Countries in Favour of the Resolution: Bangladesh, China, the Maldives, the UAE, Indonesia, and others all voted in favor of the motion.
• India’s Support: India supported resolutions concerning Palestinian self-determination, human rights in the Syrian Golan, and Israeli settlements.

About the UNHRC

• Type of Organization: The UN Human Rights Council is an intergovernmental organisation that operates within the United Nations.
• Headquarters: The UN General Assembly established the council in 2006, and it is based in Geneva.
• The High Commissioner for Human Rights is the United Nations’ highest human rights officer.
• Meeting of the Council: The council convenes three times yearly to investigate global human rights issues.
• Members: It is composed of 47 states that are responsible for promoting and protecting all human rights worldwide.
• Procedure for Electing Members: Most General Assembly members elect 47 Member States directly and individually via secret ballot.
  • Candidates for the Human Rights Council are elected in geographical groups to guarantee equitable representation.
• Tenure: Members of the Council serve three-year terms and are ineligible for immediate re-election after two consecutive terms.

Primary Functions of the UNHRC

• Monitoring and Reporting: It monitors human rights situations worldwide and investigates or commissions inquiries into alleged violations.
• The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) is a unique system in which other UN member states examine each country’s human rights record.
• Special Procedures: The UNHRC selects special rapporteurs, independent experts, and working groups to investigate and report on specific human rights concerns or topics.
  • These experts perform fact-finding trips, raise awareness, and offer recommendations regarding human rights violations.

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Context

Recently, India has achieved its target of eliminating visceral leishmaniasis, commonly known as kala-azar, according to data from the National Centre for Vector Borne Diseases Control (NCVBDC).

About Kala Azar

• Kala Azar is Caused by: The diseasee, often known as black fever, is an illness caused by infection with Leishmania parasites. 
• Transmission: It is transmitted by the female sandfly, Phlebotomus argentipes.
• Dum Dum Fever:  It is sometimes called visceral leishmaniasis, black fever, or Dum-Dum fever.
• Prevalence: Most cases are seen in Brazil, East Africa and India. An estimated 50,000 to 90,000 new cases of VL occur worldwide each year, with only 25-45% reported to WHO. 
• Symptoms: Leishmania parasites initially cause skin lesions or ulcers where they bite. If the condition progresses, it will damage the immune system.
• • Kala Azar appears after two to eight months with more generalized symptoms such as persistent fever and weakness.
• Treatment: In India, the main treatment for kala-azar is injectable liposomal amphotericin B.
  • For PKDL, the conventional treatment is 12 weeks of oral miltefosine, with the dosage adjusted according to the patient’s age and weight.

Post Kala Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL)

• About: This disorder develops when Leishmania donovani infiltrates and thrives within skin cells, resulting in skin lesions.
• Occurrence: In certain cases of kala-azar, PKDL appears after therapy, but it is currently thought that PKDL can occur without going through the visceral stage. However, more information is required to understand how PKDL develops.
  • The visceral stage is the first phase of visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar), in which the parasite infects internal organs.

Types:

• Cutaneous leishmaniasis is another type of Kala-azar that causes skin lesions, primarily ulcers on exposed body regions, resulting in scars and severe impairment. The lesions are usually not unpleasant, but they can be, especially if open sores are infected with germs. 
• Mucosal Leishmaniasis: In this kind of cutaneous leishmaniasis, parasites spread from the skin to the naso-oropharyngeal mucosa.
• Strategies Adopted to Eliminate Kala Azar in India: 3 critical interventions
• Spraying: Rigorous indoor residual spraying effort aimed at curbing sandfly breeding sites.
  • Wall Plastering: A special soil (Gerrard Soil) is applied to walls to prevent sand flies from nesting.
  • Treatment Compliance: Mobilizing the ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activist) network to ensure the completion of treatment for PKDL patients.

Government Efforts To Eliminate Kala Azar

• World Health Organisation (WHO) Targets: Under Neglected Tropical Diseases Roadmap,target for Eliminating Kala azar by 2030. 

• Government Initiatives: 

  • The Government of India initiated Kala-azar control programme in the endemic states in 1990-91. 
  • National Health Policy and Revised Targets: The National Health Policy of 2002 initially aimed for Kala-azar elimination by 2010, later revising it to 2015, 2017, and 2020. 
  • Collaborative Partnerships and Oversight: Between Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), the National Centre For Disease Control , and the World Health Organization (WHO) to achieve Kala-azar elimination. 

• Major Development:  

• • In October 2023, Bangladesh became the first country in the world officially validated by WHO for eliminating Kala Azar as a Public health concern.

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Context

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) proposed to make CBDC-R (Retail Digital Rupee) accessible to a broader population by allowing non-bank payment system operators to offer CBDC wallets.

About Central Bank Digital Currency

• Definition: Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) are a digital currency issued by a country’s central bank. They are similar to cryptocurrencies, except that the central bank fixes their value and is equivalent to the country’s fiat currency.

• Digital Rupee: The RBI’s CBDC, also known as the Digital Rupee or e-Rupee, is equivalent to a sovereign currency and may be exchanged one-for-one with fiat currency.
• CBDC’s Legality: The Finance Act 2022 amends the RBI Act, allowing it to launch Central Bank Digital Currency. The definition of a banknote was changed to allow the RBI to issue physical and digital currency by changing Section 2 of the RBI Act, of 1934.

Types of CBDC – Retail Digital Rupee and Wholesale Digital Rupee

• Retail Retail Digital Rupee: CBDC that people can use for everyday transactions.
• Wholesale CBDC:  It is a CBDC that can only be used by financial institutions such as banks and NBFCs.

CBDC – Retail Digital Rupee (e₹-R):

• Coverage: Retail Digital Rupee would cover specific areas in closed user groups that include participating customers and businesses. 
• Issuance: e₹-R is a digital token used as legal tender. It would be produced in the same denominations as traditional paper cash and coins. 
• Distribution through Intermediaries: Users can transact with e₹-R through a digital wallet issued by partner banks and stored on mobile phones/devices. Transactions can be made between individuals or between merchants.
• Payment through QR Codes: Payments to merchants can be made using QR codes displayed at their locations.
• Convertibility: Retail Digital Rupee, like cash, does not earn interest and can be converted into other forms of money, such as bank deposits.
• Features: The e₹-R offers trust, safety, and settlement finality, similar to actual cash. 
• Pilot Project: The RBI has picked eight banks to participate in this experiment. The pilot will initially cover four cities: Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, and Bhubaneswar. 
  • It will be gradually expanded to include additional cities, banks, and e₹-R features.

CBDC-Wholesale (e₹-W):

• Settlement for Secondary Transactions: Pilot e₹-W will settle secondary market transactions for government securities.
• Advantages: 
  • The use of Wholesale Digital Rupee is intended to improve the interbank market’s efficiency. 
  • Settlement in e₹-W reduces transaction costs by eliminating the requirement for settlement guarantee infrastructure or collateral to mitigate settlement risk. 

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Context

RBI, in its monetary policy committee (MPC) meeting, made a series of announcements proposing to introduce specific measures ranging from expanding the UPI network to increased participation in SGrBs, etc.

RBI Monetary Policy Committee’ April 2024: Announcements

• Cash Deposit through UPI:  

  • RBI is gearing up to facilitate a cash deposit facility through UPI, with operational instructions to be issued shortly.
    • At present:  The facility of cash deposit is available only through the use of debit cards as of now.

• Prepaid Payment Instruments (PPIs) Holders: 

• • To provide more flexibility to PPI holders, RBI has proposed to permit the linking of PPIs through third-party UPI applications. 
    • This will enable the PPI holders to make UPI payments like bank account holders.

• • • At Present: PPIs can currently be used to make UPI transactions only by using the application provided by the PPI issuer.

• Non-Resident participation in Sovereign Green Bonds (SGrBs): 

  • RBI to permit eligible foreign investors in the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) to also invest in SGrBs.
    • At present: Foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) registered with SEBI are permitted to invest in SGrBs under the different routes available for investment by FPIs in government securities.
    • Sovereign Green Bonds (SGrBs): These are debt instrument issued  to fund green initiatives and promote ecological conservation.
      • The Government of India had issued SGrBs in January 2023. 

• A Mobile App for RBI Retail Direct Scheme:  

  • A mobile application of the Retail Direct portal is being developed to enable investors to buy and sell instruments at their convenience and to improve ease of access. 
    • To give individual investors access to maintain gilt accounts with RBI and invest in government securities.
    • The Scheme enables investors to buy securities in primary auctions and buy/sell securities through the NDS-OM platform.

• Distribution of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) through Non-bank Payment System Operators: 

  • RBI has proposed to make CBDC-Retail accessible to users by enabling non-bank payment system operators to offer CBDC wallets.
    • This is expected to enhance access and expand choices available to users apart from testing the resilience of the CBDC platform to handle multi-channel transactions. 
    • Central bank digital currencies (CBDCs): These are digital currencies similar to cryptocurrencies issued by a country’s central bank, who fixes its value and is equivalent to the country’s fiat currency. 

• Small Finance Banks: 

• • RBI will allow SFBs to deal with permissible rupee interest derivative products regarding rupee interest rate derivatives.  
    • It is to hedge interest rate risk in their balance sheet and commercial operations more effectively and provide them with greater flexibility.
    • At Present: The current guidelines permit Small Finance Banks to use only Interest Rate Futures (IRFs) for proprietary hedging.

• Review the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) Framework: 

  • Certain modifications to the LCR framework are being proposed to facilitate better management of liquidity risk by the banks. 
    • LCR framework: It refers to the proportion of highly liquid assets held by financial institutions to ensure that they maintain an ongoing ability to meet their short-term obligations (i.e., cash outflows for 30 days).

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Recently, the  White House has asked NASA to establish a unified time standard for the moon and other celestial bodies, hoping to impose international regulations in space as part of a competitive lunar race.

NASA Will Create a New Time Zone for the Moon, Called Coordinated Lunar Time

• Coordinated Lunar time will serve as a timekeeping baseline for lunar missions, compensating for the differences in gravity forces and other factors that influence time perception on the moon.
• Aim of the Programme: To improve precision in lunar missions, ease data exchanges between spacecraft, and coordinate operations as commercial activities extend on the moon.
• ISS Timekeeping: Due to agreements with many governments, the International Space Station (ISS) works on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which accounts for the station’s orbit and gravity variances.
• Technical obstacles: The lunar environment has unique obstacles for timekeeping, such as gravity forces and the duration of a lunar day, forcing the development of “Coordinated Lunar Time” or “Lunar Standard Time.”

Timekeeping on the Moon

• Moon’s Timing: The Moon has its day-night cycle, which lasts approximately 29.5 Earth days.
• Need for Timekeeping System for Humans: If humans were to reside on the Moon, they would have to create their timekeeping system.
• Measurement of Moon’s time: Currently, time on the Moon is measured in Universal Time Coordinated (UTC), the same timekeeping system used on Earth.
• Difficulty with UTC: However, because the Moon’s day is significantly longer than Earth’s, it would be challenging to use UTC for day-to-day activity there.

About Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)

• About: Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) is a time standard that ensures time consistency worldwide.
• Based Upon: UTC is based on International Atomic Time (TAI), synchronized by atomic clocks worldwide.
• Primary Time Standard: Numerous countries, international organizations, and scientific research institutions use this standard as their primary time.
• Time offset: UTC is a 24-hour clock that represents the time offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC+0).
• Time zones: Time zones are specified as an offset from UTC, with some ahead of UTC (UTC+1, UTC+2, etc.) and others behind UTC (UTC-1, UTC-2, etc.).
• Periodic Adjustments: UTC is modified regularly to account for fluctuations in the Earth’s rotation, which can result in variations in day length.
• Sync with Earth’s Rotation: These modifications are achieved by adding leap seconds to UTC, which helps to keep the time standard in sync with the Earth’s rotation.

Need for the Moon Time Zone

• Improved communication: A series of space operations around the moon will require spacecraft and controllers to communicate and determine their whereabouts independently of Earth.
• Universal Time Zone: The primary goal of developing a global timekeeping system for the moon is to improve communication among the various governments and institutions, both governmental and private, that coordinate travels to and around it.
• Successful ISA operational model: The International Space Station (ISA) has no time zone. Instead, it uses Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC, based on atomic clocks.
  • This helps to reduce the time gap between NASA, the Canadian Space Agency, and other space partners in Russia, Japan, and Europe.
• No fixed time zone: Lunar missions have operated according to the time of the country that launched them. However, with many lunar excursions slated for launch, the European Space Agency has declared the existing method unsustainable.

Challenges in Establishing UTC on the Moon

• Difficulty in Syncing Time with Earth: Atomic clocks perfectly measure time on Earth. However, synchronizing time on the moon is difficult because clocks run faster, gaining approximately 58.7  microseconds (millionths of a second) daily.
• Rugged Terrain: It would also be challenging to establish a uniform time zone for the entire Moon, considering the vast differences in terrain and lighting conditions across its surface.
• Irregular and Uneven Movement of the Moon: Any lunar timekeeping system must be able to account for the Moon’s uneven rotation and movement.

Conclusion

Developing a Unified Time Standard for the Moon will require international collaboration. TI -Artemis Accords, an agreement signed by multiple nations, provides a peaceful and cooperative space exploration framework. NASA will work with international partners to define and implement LTC, harmonizing lunar activities globally.

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Context

A new study published in The Lancet, the study reported global life expectancy increases by 6.2 years from 1990 to 2021.

• The primary reasons behind the Decline in mortality rates are enteric infections, lower respiratory infections, ischemic heart disease, and strokes worldwide.
• However, the impact of COVID-19 was detrimental in several nations.

Key Findings of the Lancet Study On Global Life Expectancy

There are various reasons behind Gain in Life Expectancy 

• Enteric Infections: 

  • Enteric illnesses are food and waterborne illnesses.
    • Bacterial, parasitic, and viral diseases have contributed to the highest death reduction.
    • This category of diseases includes typhoid and diarrhoea.
    • Life Expectancy: A reduction in deaths from these diseases increased life expectancy by 1-1.5 years during 1990-2021.
      • The most striking increase was seen between 1990 and 2000 compared with subsequent decades. 
      • South Asia saw significant gains (3.1 years) due to reduced enteric infections.

• Lower Respiratory Infections: 

  • The researchers found reduced deaths from lower respiratory infections were the second-largest contributing factor to increasing life expectancy.
    • It caused 0.9 years of gained life expectancy from 1990 to 2021.

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: 

  • The researchers noted that a drop in chronic respiratory diseases contributed to an increase of 0.5 years in life expectancy. 
    • East Asia had a significant role in this, with improvements in mortality in China.

• Reductions in Measles Mortality:

  • vaccine-preventable disease: The researchers identified significant reductions in mortality rates from vaccine-preventable diseases like measles.
  • Geographical concentration: These reductions were widespread but geographically concentrated, particularly in western and eastern sub-Saharan Africa.
  • Deaths among children under five years: The study highlighted a decline in deaths among children under five years old due to measles.

• Persistent Threats from Digestive Diseases and Cirrhosis:

  • Digestive diseases and cirrhosis threat: Despite progress in some areas, the study identified ongoing threats from digestive diseases and cirrhosis.
    • From 2010 to 2019, there was a lack of improvement in addressing these conditions, indicating their continued significance as health concerns.

• Impact of Diabetes and Kidney Diseases:

  • Life expectancy: Diabetes and kidney diseases contribute to a global loss of 0.1 years in life expectancy.
    • These conditions pose additional challenges to global health and require continued attention and intervention efforts.

• Impact of COVID-19 on Global Life Expectancy:

  • Leading Causes of Age-Standardized Deaths: The primary causes of death remained unchanged between 1990 and 2019, but the COVID-19 pandemic changed the rankings of these causes.
    • In 2019, globally, the leading causes of age-standardized deaths were ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lower respiratory infections.
  • However, by 2021, COVID-19 became the second leading cause of age-standardized deaths, replacing stroke.
  • Death and life expectancy: COVID-19 accounted for 94 deaths per 100,000 population in 2021 and caused a decline of 1.6 years in global life expectancy between 2019 and 2021, marking the largest decrease in life expectancy estimates.
  • Varied severity of COVID-19 across regions: Andean Latin America experienced the most significant loss of 4.9 years, while East Asia saw minimal change.
    • Sub-Saharan Africa faced challenges as COVID-19 compounded existing health issues, particularly high mortality rates from HIV/AIDS.

• Additional Causes of Death Identified:

• • The researchers added 12 new causes of death to the Global Burden of Diseases report 2021;
    • COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality diseases
    • Pulmonary arterial hypertension
    • Various types of cancer

Way Forward

• Focus on Remaining Challenges:

  • According to the study, there is a need to address remaining threats like digestive diseases, cirrhosis, and diabetes. Thus, Policies should prioritize research and interventions in these areas.

• Vaccination Programs:

• • There is a need for Policies that ensure regular funding and access to essential vaccinations for treating vaccine-preventable diseases. 
    • It includes strengthening and expanding immunization programs and developing new vaccines for pathogens like E. coli, norovirus, and Shigella.

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Recently, Researchers at the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography discovered 50,000-year-old magnetic fossils in the Bay of Bengal. 

• It is one of the youngest and most enormous magnetic fossils.

Magnetic Fossils in Bay of Bengal: Key Findings of the Study

• Fluctuations in Monsoon: Analysis of sediment samples revealed changes in monsoon strength over the last Glacial Maximum-Holocene epoch, which influenced weathering and sedimentation.
  • The Holocene represents the most recent interglacial interval of the Quaternary Period.
• Appropriate environment for Magnetic Fossil Growth: According to the study, warming events are not required to produce large magneto fossils; instead, a proper balance of iron, organic carbon, and suboxic environments is critical.
• Role of Rivers in Formation of Magnetic Fossils: The rivers Godavari, Mahanadi, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Cauvery, and Penner, which flow into the Bay of Bengal, all played essential roles in the development of magnetofossils.
• Discharge of Freshwater: The freshwater discharge from these rivers, combined with other oceanographic processes such as eddy formation, resulted in oxygen levels in these waters that are not often observed in other low-oxygen zones.
• Finding of Single-Celled Organisms: Researchers discovered many benthic and planktonic foraminifera, single-celled organisms with shells that live near the seabed and float freely in water.

About Magento Fossils

• About: These are the fossilized remains of magnetic particles produced by magnetotactic bacteria, commonly known as magneto bacteria, and discovered and preserved in geological records.
• Definition: Magneto fossils are biological materials that include magnetic minerals, primarily magnetite (Fe3O4) and greigite (Fe3S4).
• Magnetotactic bacteria are primarily prokaryotic organisms that align with the earth’s magnetic field. These distinctive creatures were originally described in 1963.
• Following the Magnetic Field: These organisms were thought to follow the magnetic field to areas with high oxygen concentrations.
• Characteristics of Magnetotactic Bacteria: These bacteria contained “novel structured particles, rich in iron” in microscopic sacs that functioned as a compass.
  • These magnetotactic bacteria produce microscopic crystals of magnetite or greigite, both iron-rich minerals. The crystals assist them in navigating the fluctuating oxygen levels of the aquatic body in which they live.

Types of Magneto Fossils

• Bacterial Magnetite: Certain bacteria may produce magnetite within their cells, forming chains of magnetosomes that function as tiny compass needles.
• Magnetic Crystals in Organisms: Some organisms, including mollusks, fish, and birds, can biomineralize magnetite or greigite within their tissues.

• Significance of Magneto Fossils: Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction: The presence of magneto fossils in sedimentary rocks can reveal information about past habitats, such as oxygen levels, temperature, and even the presence of certain animals.
• Paleomagnetism: Magneto fossils help to reconstruct the Earth’s past magnetic field. Scientists can learn about the past orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field by examining the orientation and intensity of magnetic minerals in fossils.
• Biological Behaviour: Investigating magneto fossils can provide information about the behaviour and ecology of ancient creatures. 
  • For example, the presence of magnetite in some creatures may imply that they can navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field.

Methods of Study:

• Rock Magnetism: Rock magnetism, which involves measuring the magnetic characteristics of rocks and fossils, is used to investigate magneto fossils.Paleomagnetic analysis: It involves detecting the orientation and strength of magnetism in rocks and fossils to recreate the Earth’s previous magnetic field.
• Microscopy and imaging: High-resolution microscopy and imaging techniques enable scientists to study the structure and distribution of magnetic minerals within fossils at the microscopic level.

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Context

Climate engineering is expected to be cheap relative to the cost of ending greenhouse gas emissions, however, it is not oblivious to risks.

• African countries called for a moratorium on climate engineering, urging all precautions at the United Nations Environment Assembly in March 2024.
• The United States pressed for a formal scientific group to study the risks and benefits before making any decisions.

What is Climate Engineering?

• Climate engineering is the intentional large-scale intervention in the Earth’s climate system to counter climate change.
• Techniques used:
  • Carbon dioxide removal techniques (CDR) involve pulling carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and locking it away. 
    • It involves five approaches: Direct air capture, land-use management through afforestation/reforestation, sequestering carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by biomass, increasing the uptake of CO2 by the ocean, and enhancing natural weathering processes that remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
    • Humans are putting over 37 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere annually and pulling only about 2 billion tons (0.1%) of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere yearly.
  • Solar Radiation management (SRM) employs technologies to rapidly cool the Earth’s temperature by simulating the cooling effects of volcanic eruptions and enhancing the reflectivity of marine clouds.
    • Stratospheric Aerosol Injection: It involves spraying reflective sulfate aerosol particles (sulphur dioxide) into the stratosphere with high-altitude airplanes, tethered balloons etc.
      • The idea mimics the natural atmospheric sulfate injections caused by large volcanic eruptions, which generally result in a short-duration cooling of the planet.
      • Volcanic  eruptions spread into the atmosphere tiny particles ie. “aerosols.” Light-colored aerosol particles can reflect incoming energy from the sun in cloud-free air and dark particles can absorb it. 
    • Marine cloud brightening (MCB): It uses sea salt to “seed” or stimulate the formation of low-altitude clouds over the ocean, enhance their reflectivity and extend their lifetimes.

The Risk Associated with Climate Engineering Techniques

• Free Driver Problem: 

  • The expensive technology is being developed by a very small group of countries, firms and academics, meaning that one country could unilaterally affect the world’s climate.
    • Example: Australia is currently exploring the feasibility of rapidly cooling the Great Barrier Reef to prevent its demise.

• Transboundary effects:  

  • A climate engineering project in one country will likely affect temperature and rainfall in neighbouring countries, affecting crops, water supplies and flood risk.
    • A UNESCO report on climate engineering urged countries belonging to a geographic area to make regional agreements to avoid risks of unequal spatial distribution of effects. 

• Climate Scapegoat: 

  • Once climate engineering is deployed, countries may be more likely to blame climate engineering for extreme events such as hurricanes, floods and droughts, regardless of the evidence.

• A Potential tool for Weaponization: 

  • Climate engineering techniques can be used as a weapon for political or economic interests.

• Geopolitical Conflicts:

  • It can reignite the north-south divide. Some countries would benefit from climate engineering and thus be more resilient to geopolitical strife, while others would be harmed and thus left more vulnerable.

• Cause of Conflict: 

  • Climate engineering may spark disputes among countries, leading to sanctions and demands for compensation.

• Unintended Consequences: 

• • Large-scale climate engineering experiments have yet to be conducted, and much information about its effects relies solely on climate models. 
    • Thus, various unknown and unintended consequences must be assessed, and the risks must be measured thoroughly.

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Context

Miscreants have damaged the Kumittipathi Rock Paintings in the cave at Kumittipathi, a village near Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

Kumittipathi Rock Paintings

• These Kumittipathi Rock Paintings are among the most important rock art in the Kongu region and are around 3,000 years old. 
• They are drawn with white pigments on the walls of a natural cave and depict animals, human figures, and chariots.

About Rock Art

• Rock art refers to drawings, paintings, or similar works created on or of stone, typically from ancient or prehistoric times.
• It includes various forms, such as drawings (pictographs), carvings (petroglyphs), engravings, rock arrangements (petroforms), and ground drawings (geoglyphs).
• These artworks often show ancient animals, tools, and human activities, offering insights into past daily life. However, they are often symbolic rather than realistic.
• Rock art sites can have art from different centuries, showing the evolution of artistic styles over time.
• Cave Painting
  • Cave paintings are a type of rock art known as pictographs.

About Kumittipathi Rock Paintings at Pathimalai in Kumittipathi

• Variety of Depictions: Besides the elephant, the Kumittipathi Rock Paintings portray a chariot (interpreted by some as a peacock), human figures, and scenes from the lives of ancient inhabitants.
• Caves used for Dwellings: Small holes are also present that might have been used by the people who lived there to store water and other things.
• Variety in Age and Materials:
  • The rock expert suggests not all Kumittipathi Rock Paintings are from the same period. 
  • Materials: Artists likely used inorganic white pigment and natural gum.
• Similar Paintings in the Region: Rock paintings resembling those at Kumittipathi can be found at Vellarukkam Palayam, Viraliyur, and Kovanur.
  • They depict hunting scenes and other activities.
• Interpretation of elephant image
  • Age: The elephant image is believed to be among the oldest paintings in the cave.
  • Possible meaning:
  • Elephant trade: Some argue that the elephant image indicates the practice of capturing wild elephants and their trade owing to the proximity of Kumittipathi to two places: 
    • Mavuthampathi (suggesting a place inhabited by mahouts) 
    • Velanthavalam (a place for Vezham, which means elephant).
  • There is no evidence to support the claim: Others say there is no historical evidence linking the paintings to the two places.

Historian’s Perspective on Elephant Trade

• Denial of Elephant Trade: Historians disagree that the Kumittipathi Rock Paintings represents elephant trade, citing the absence of a governing empire in the region during the painting’s creation.
• Trade with Romans: Trade in the area with the Romans has been supported, but no historical evidence connects the paintings to the elephant trade.
• Alternative Interpretation:
• • Daily activities or religious practices: According to some historians, the rock paintings may depict daily activities or religious practices rather than the elephant trade.
  • Festival or an organized society: It has been suggested that an image interpreted as people pulling a chariot might symbolize something different, such as a festival or an organized society.
    • Despite being attributed to hunters, the paintings could serve as a representation of broader societal aspects.

Historian Perspective on Kumittipathi Rock Paintings

• Purpose: 

  • According to the archaeologists, the Kumittipathi Rock Paintings were created by tribal people for entertainment or because they believed that depicting hunting scenes increased hunting success. 
    • However, there are few hunting scenes at Kumittipathi.

• Meaning of a Specific Figure (Car): 

• • According to archaeology, a figure resembling a car might be a peacock. 

• Murugan Temple: 

  • A Murugan temple atop the hillock suggests that early inhabitants may have worshipped the deity.
    • There are also megalithic burial sites in the region

• Dating the Kumittipathi Rock Paintings: 

• • By linking the paintings to nearby megalithic burial sites, archaeologists estimate the art could date back to the 5th Century BCE.

• Geographical Significance: 

  • Kumittipathi is situated in the Palakkad Gap of the Western Ghats,  a notable break in the mountain range.
    • This geographical feature has historically served as a corridor connecting Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
  • Trade route: There were ancient trade routes known as Peruvazhi in the Palakkad Gap.
    • These trade routes existed between Anamalai and Ayyasamy Malai.
  • Trade route in the Sangam period: During the Sangam period, three trade routes passed through Anamalai, Vellalore, and Avinashi.

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Context

Recently, the Indian Government virtually launched one of the “Experimental Licence modules for 100 5G Labs” during a 5G workshop at IIT Madras.

Experimental Licence Module For 100 5G Labs 

• This will simplify the experimental licence requirements, facilitate smoother operations, and foster innovation in the 5G domain.
• Last year, 100 ‘5G Use Case Labs’ were awarded to educational institutions nationwide to realize the opportunities associated with 5G technology by encouraging the development of 5G applications.

About 5G Use Case Labs

• Objective: To cultivate competencies and engagement in 5G technologies among students and start-up communities.
• Need for License: These labs will use 5G frequency bands to conduct experiments and test use cases. 
  • Hence, they must obtain an experimental (Non-radiating) license category from the DoT to ensure interference-free operations for licensed telecommunications service providers (TSPs).
• Ownership and Facilities: The beneficiary institution will own the lab assets and provide necessary facilities such as space, power supply, internet, and tech manpower (for local maintenance).
• Equipment Requirements: The 5G lab equipment would include 5G SA infrastructure (mid-band), 5G SIMs, Dongles, IoT Gateway, Router and Application Server to meet lab needs along with a management dashboard.
• Significance: 
  • The 5G Use Case labs will test 5G applications in different sectors: education, agriculture, health, power, urban management, mining, logistics, resource management, tourism, sports, security, and e-governance.

Key Features of the Experimental Licence Modules for 100 5G Labs

• Efficiency: This automates the application process by pre-filling technical specifications and schematic details, reducing manual effort and time.
• Instantaneous Licensing: Applicants can now obtain the experimental license through a “Self-declaration Mode” from the DoT’s Saralsanchar portal through the National Single Window System (NSWS).
• Simplified Application: Only basic information is required, such as institute address, authorised personnel, and a nominal fee of Rs. 5000.
• Support for Innovation: This initiative supports innovation, cultivates competencies, and democratises access to 5G technology, empowering educational institutions and startups to explore its potential for transformative applications.

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Context

In recent years, global indices measuring democracy have downgraded India’s democratic standing, which the Indian government has refuted. The government now plans to release its democracy index.

Democracy Report 2024

• V Dem Institute: The recent democracy index 2024 termed India “one of the worst autocracies”. According to this index, India ceased to be a democracy in 2018. Freedom House: It categorized India as only ‘partly free’.
• The Economist Intelligence Unit: It categorized India as only home to a “flawed democracy”.
• Government Response: India has previously denounced all global rating assessments of Indian conditions, from democracy and press freedom to hunger, human development and happiness. 

Impact of Negative Standings on Democracy Indices on India

• Impact on Rating: The negative commentary by think tanks and agencies threatens India’s sovereign ratings and its ranking on the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators.
• Impact on Image: Such a downgrade ranking adversely impacts India’s image. India, for instance, ranks between Niger (which is ruled by a military junta) and Ivory Coast and is in the same category as Palestine. 

Significance of Democracy Indices

• Such indices capture important big-picture dynamics and trends in democracy. 
• They offer ways to benchmark the strengths and weaknesses of political regimes.
• They make different components comparable over periods and across geographies.
• Together, these indices “comprise a combination of quantitative assessments.
  • Example: The distribution of seats in the national legislature among political parties and qualitative judgements like whether safeguards against corruption are effective.

Limitations of Global Indices

• Subjectivity and Credibility: 

  • There is a degree of subjectivity that impacts the indices’ credibility and precision. 
    • Evaluations are still based on the judgement of researchers and coders rather than tangible characteristics.
    • Example: V-Dem’s “egalitarian” indicator assesses the equality of social groups in the political arena, such as how many political parties are present in the country. 

• Neutrality: 

  • Questions have been raised on the strength of the data, evidence and neutrality of people (professors, authors, and intellectuals) who conducted the surveys. 

• Flawed Methodology: 

  • The methodology is flawed, sample sizes inadequate, and that these indices favour cultural bias and subjective opinion over objective metrics. 
    • Example: India, for instance, ranks between Niger (which is ruled by a military junta) and Ivory Coast, and is in the same category as Palestine. 
    • However, on fair elections or electoral participation, India is “doing as well as any other democracy,”.

• Dimensions Beyond Electoral Democracy: 

  • Some indices have a “differential item functioning” to adjust for variations and biases between experts. 
    • Example: V-Dem’s model requires researchers to state uncertainties, compare disagreements between experts, and produce best and worst estimates of many indicators. 

• Workings of Aggregation Model: 

  • There is also a concern over the workings of the index’s aggregation model. Experts’ judgment is used to decide which metrics to include and how to weigh each appropriately. 
    • However, it remains unclear why some subindices were chosen and why other subindices are weighted less.

• Scope of Countries: 

  • Another concern is over the scope of countries included in these indices. Only some indices such as Freedom House and Lexical Index survey non-independent and microstates. 
    • Smaller countries may thus be overlooked in certain cases.

• Perceived Ideological Discrepancy: 

  • It is another criticism, partly due to the unclear definition of democracy itself. 
    • Example: Lesotho suffered a military coup in 2014 and is assigned a higher score than India. And if economically unequal countries such as Brazil are democratic, how is India classified as an electoral autocracy? 

• Unsymmetrical Outputs: 

• • Indices use different patterns, such as the EIU rank, which goes from 0 to 10; and V-Dem’s rank, which goes from 0 to 1. Others also classify the degree of democracy, from autocracy to anocracy to democracy in Polity’s Index, etc. 

• Misleading International Parameters: 

  • Misleading Parameters are widely used, such as those that measure childhood stunting, female labour force participation rate and life expectancy at birth.

Democracy in India 

• Refers: The term ‘democracy’ comes from the Greek word “demokratia,” which means “rule of the people.” In a democracy, the power rests with the people. 
  • India is the world’s largest democracy. India follows a Parliamentary form of Democracy, with the executive being accountable to the legislature.
• Definition: In the words of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a “government of the people, by the people, for the people”. 
  • Democracy upholds the principles of equality, freedom, fraternity, human rights, individual autonomy and justice.
• Characteristics Features of Indian Democracy: Popular Sovereignty, Universal Adult Suffrage, Rule of Law, Separation of Power, Independent Judiciary, Free and Fair Elections, Multi-Party System, Secularism, Free Press and Independent Civil Society.

Challenges to Indian Democracy

• Legislative Decline: The suspension of MPs denies them the right to participate in Legislative debate and discussion, a fundamental feature of parliamentary democracy.
  • Recently, 140 Members of Parliament (MPs) have been suspended in India, which experts see as a weakening of parliamentary democracy in India.
• Challenge of Casteism: Casteism plays a dominant role in Indian polity. Many caste pressure groups like Scheduled Caste Federation, etc. influence those in power by different methods to meet their demands. 
  • Example: Political parties like the AIADMK, DMK, and BSP have emerged to protect the interests of the backward classes.
• Communalism in Politics leads to the formation and growth of pressure groups that protect and promote the community’s specific interests.
  • It also leads to intolerance, suspicion and fear towards members of the other communities.
  • Example: According to National Crime Records Bureau data, over 2,900 communal violence cases were registered in the country in the last five years.
• Judicial Overreach is undesirable in a democracy and goes against the principle of separation of powers.
  • Example: In the Shyam Narayan Chouksey vs. the Union of India case, the SC mandated that the National Anthem be played in movie theatres. It was seen as an instance of judicial overreach.
• Freedom of Press: It may lead to easier manipulation of news, and the spread of misinformation and fake news undermines public trust.
  • Example: In 2023, India ranked 161st among the 180 countries in the World Press Freedom Index.
• Expansion of Democratic Participation: This challenge of Indian democracy involves the practical aspects of:
  • Ensuring greater power to local governments.
  • Extension of federal principles to all the units of the federation.
  • Inclusion of women and minority groups.
• Criminalisation of Politics: This challenge of Indian democracy reflects money and muscle power, violence, lack of electoral ethics, insufficient society like minorities and women etc. 
  • 43% of those who won national parliament seats at the 2019 general election had been charged with a crime.
  • In the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), 2023, India is placed 93rd out of 180 countries, a slight decline from its 85th position in 2022.
• Challenge of Violence: Violence severely affects India’s democracy, secularism, human rights, social harmony, national security and development.
  • Example: In the 2023 Global Peace Index (GPI), India ranks 126th.
• Regional Economic Differences: Low-wage, low-skilled jobs remain the probable form of employment for millions of young Indians, particularly in poorer, populous states such as Uttar Pradesh.
• Other Challenges: Illiteracy, poverty, gender discrimination, etc.

Way Forward

• Follow Democratic Values: India needs to uphold constitutional values and democratic principles.
• Safeguard Federalism: To promote inclusivity and diversity, India needs to take action to safeguard federalism and decentralize power. 
• Transparent Electoral Process: It’s time to ensure the integrity of the electoral process.
• Approach Basic Human Rights: India must have a rational, planned and scientific economic order to empower every citizen by providing them with fundamental human rights. 
• Inclusive Development: It is a key to development. To ensure inclusive policy-making and policy implementation, democratic institutions must be broadened to include civil society, private agencies, and local government.
• Collaborative Approach: At the global level, a collaborative approach needs to be accepted with a broad consensus on minimum rules and rights for the citizens.

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