Context:

• The Indian Navy completed its second anti-piracy patrol in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG) in the Atlantic Ocean. 

About the Gulf of Guinea:

• It is part of the eastern tropical Atlantic Ocean off the western African coast.
• Expanse: It extends westward from Cap López, near the Equator, to Cape Palmas at longitude 7° west.

• Rivers: Volta and Niger rivers fall into the gulf.
• Tectonic plate: The coastline of the Gulf of Guinea forms part of the western edge of the African tectonic plate and corresponds to the continental margin of South America running from Brazil to the Guianas.                                          
• Volcanic region: The only active volcanic region is the island arc aligned with Mount Cameroon on the coast of the Cameroon Republic.
• Ocean current: The entire northern coast of the gulf is washed by the eastward flow of the Guinea Current (warm water current ), which extends from Senegal to the Bight of Biafra. 
  • The Benguela Current (cold), as it swings westward, forms the South Equatorial Current to the south of, and running counter to, the Guinea Current.

News Source: The Hindu

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Context:

• Since the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war and the Israel-Hamas conflict, there has been considerable debate about the importance of proportionality. 

Proportionality as a myth in war: The intense bloodshed in the ongoing war between Hamas and Israel has evoked strong emotional responses from people across the world. 

• Ex- The Prime Minister of Norway stated that Israel’s use of military force against Hamas in Gaza is “beyond proportionality.” 

International humanitarian law (IHL) and Principle of proportionality:

• Restriction on using force: It places restrictions on the use of force, especially against civilians.
• Principle of Jus in Bello: IHL applicable to armed conflicts ( jus in bello ), it uses the principle of proportionality to limit the damages caused by military operations on civilian populations and objects. 
  • Once a State has resorted to the use of armed force, jus in bello kicks in to regulate and restrain the use of force in times of armed conflict.
  • It obliges to balance the military advantages sought and the damage and civilian losses related to it. 
• Differentiating civilian objects and military objectives: IHL provides that parties to the conflict must distinguish between civilian objects and military objectives by using specific methods of warfare.

Why is proportionality a myth during the war?

• Voluntary Nature of IHL: IHL is voluntary and non-binding on sovereign states. 
  • Adherence and compliance with international law rely on “good faith” as there is no entity to enforce it. 
• Myth of war without public mobilization: The belief that wars can occur without public support is a misconception. 
• War as a collision of nationalism: Wars fundamentally involve clashes of nationalisms or collective human wills, necessitating the mobilization of populations. 
  • Both Israel’s response and Hamas’ actions are rooted in civilian support. 
• Constraints in warfare: They are influenced by various factors including the: 
  • Relative capabilities of adversaries
  • Level of enemy strength
  • Tactics and operational strategies employed
  • Terrain of combat
  • Objectives pursued by the belligerents
  • Relative positions of adversaries, allies, and partners.

News Source: orfonline

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Context:

• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) declared about the development of Cyclone Midhili in the northwest Bay of Bengal.

Latest update on Cyclone Midhili

• Under the influence of Cyclone Midhili, heavy rainfall is forecasted in the coastal regions of Odisha, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram with wind speed blowing in the range between 40 kmph and 70 kmph.

What are Cyclones?

• A Cyclone is a rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure(LP) area. 
• They are confined to the area lying between 30° N and 30° S latitudes in the atmosphere.
• Cyclones in India:  Tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean region develop during the pre-monsoon (April to June) and post-monsoon (October to December) periods.

Conditions for the formation of a tropical cyclone:

• Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air.
• Strong Coriolis force that can prevent the filling of low pressure at the centre.
• Unstable condition that creates local disturbances.
• Absence of strong vertical wind wedge which disturbs the vertical transport of latent heat.

Formation of cyclones:

• Formation and Initial Development Stage:  A warm sea with abundant and turbulent transfer of water vapor.
• Mature Phase: Air rises and tends to spread out at the tropopause level. The air warms up by compression and a warm ‘Eye’ is generated.
• Modification and Decay: Cyclone begins to weaken as its source of warm moist air begins to ebb, or is abruptly cut off.

• Naming of cyclones: Countries affected by the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal cyclones rotationally give names of cyclones in a sequence.
  • The name ‘Midhili’ was given by the Maldives. 

News Source: Live mint

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Context:

• The union finance ministry lowered the windfall tax on the sale of domestic crude oil to ₹6,300 a tonne (earlier ₹9,800).

More about the news:

• The ministry also decided to reduce the special additional excise duty (SAED) on the export of diesel from ₹2 to Rs. 1 per litre. 
• The windfall tax on petrol and aviation turbine fuel (ATF) remained unchanged at zero.
• Reason: The cut comes as crude oil prices have been easing amid persistent concerns of lower global demand and another interest-rate hike by the US Federal Reserve.

About windfall tax:

• Increased tax: A windfall tax is a higher tax levied by the government on specific industries when they experience unexpected and above-average profits.
• Windfall tax in India: It is levied on domestic crude oil if rates of the global benchmark rise above $75 per barrel. 
  • Export of diesel, ATF and petrol attract the levy if product cracks (or margins) rise above $20 per barrel.
  • India first imposed windfall profit taxes on July 1 last year, joining a growing number of nations that tax supernormal profits of energy companies.
• SAED: The tax is levied in the form of a Special Additional Excise Duty or SAED. 
• Product cracks or margins:  It represents the difference between the cost of crude oil (raw material) and the value of the finished petroleum products.

News Source: Live Mint

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Context:

• Seed preservation is traditional knowledge for the Ao and Sümi Naga communities of Nagaland, orally passed from one generation to another. The principle of seed preservation is present in every aspect of cultivation, right from the selection of crops.

Seed Preservation: Nagaland’s Sustainable Farming

• Traditionally Agrarian Practice: Ao and Sümi Naga Community practice jhum cultivation or shifting cultivation. Traditional knowledge of seed preservation helps Nagaland’s native communities ensure continued sustenance.

Seed Preservation Practice:

• Seed selection: The communities select seeds from initial harvests in new jhum fields to preserve for successive cycles, as these are recognised to exhibit optimal yield and resilience. 
  • Seeds selected for cultivation in new jhum fields depend on the type of land.
  • Traditional jhum fields are of two kinds: 
    • Highlands: The soil is loosely condensed and glutinous, better suited for maize, taro, mustard crops, glutinous rice and long grain rice
    • Lowlands: It is compact and more porous, suitable for beans, chili and leguminous crops.
• Seed storage: Storage is done from the best harvest to enjoy the same taste every year.
• Storage methods: They differ across crop varieties. 
  • Seeds of some varieties such as beans, sesame, mustard and pumpkin are preserved through sun-drying while others are stored in baskets.
  • Maize is bundled in rows above fireplaces or tied to kitchen roofs. 
  • Poaceae seeds, particularly rice, are stored in household granaries (called jen in Ao and aleh in Sümi). 
  • Residents also build community granaries that are strategically positioned on the outskirts of villages to serve as a dependable resource in case of emergencies, such as a fire.
• Materials for storage: used for the baskets are bamboo, rattan or cane, whose culm or stems have low starch content, as these are more resistant to pests.
• Aeration tool:  It is made of bamboo. Normally, three or four aeration tools are placed between threshed rice in the granaries, to ensure out-circulation of warm air that can be detrimental to the preservation of grains. 
  • The presence of sprouting rice stalks around this aeration tool is considered a symbol of abundance.
• Disease prevention: Every traditional Naga kitchen also has multiple rectangular tiers above the hearth, to store seeds and small agricultural implements. 
  • Seeds are stored on these tiers to prevent attacks from pathogens and reduce accumulated moisture. Cotton seeds are stored in terracotta sandwiched between layers of ash. 
  • In a few cases, seeds are mixed with ash and charcoal — 500 grams of ash and charcoal for 1 kilogram of seeds — to keep dry.
• Transition of Cultivation practice: In Wamaken village (near Assam), cash crop farming has replaced jhum cultivation. 
  • This transition has resulted in the adverse decline of seed diversity and a potential threat of cash crops invading the native ecosystem.

News Source: DTE

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Context:

• The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) recently probed 20 IAS coaching centres for making misleading claims in their advertisements and for unfair trade practices. 

Misleading advertisement

• CCPA observed that institutes use pictures and names of top rank holders and successful candidates to influence potential aspirants, without disclosing the nature of their enrolments.  
  • Four of the twenty institutions have already been slapped with a penalty of Rs 1 lakh.
• Violation of norms: As per Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI), education has emerged as “one of the most violative sectors in advertising” in recent years. 

Observations of CCPA:

• Serving self interests: CCPA observed that most rank holders showcased in the advertisements only took mock interviews from these institutes. 
  • IAS coaching centres provided mock interviews free of cost, which served their own interests. 
• Concealment of information: This information is not disclosed in the advertisements, which ideally must include the course they enrolled for.
  • Thus, it qualifies as deliberate concealment of important information and categorisation as a ‘misleading advertisement’ under Section 2(28) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019.  
• Penalties for violation: First time violations may invite penalties up to Rs 10 lakh. 
  • Subsequent violations may attract penalties up to Rs 50 lakh, with other potential legal action should the non-compliance continue. 

Essential provisions of Consumer Protection Act, 2019:

• Consumer Protection Councils: They protect the rights of the consumers at both the national and state levels.
• Central Consumer Protection Authority: The Central Government shall establish it to regulate matters relating to violation of the rights of consumers, unfair trade practices and false or misleading advertisements.
  • The Central Government will appoint the Chief Commissioner and the other Commissioners of the Central Authority as required under the Act.
• Consumer disputes redressal commission (CDRC): The state government shall establish a CDRC known as the District Commission in each district of the state under the CCPA, 2019.

Consumer rights under Consumer Protection Act, 2019:

• The right of a consumer to be protected from the marketing of goods and services that are hazardous and detrimental to life and property.
• The right of a consumer to be protected against unfair trade practices by being aware of the quality, quantity, potency, purity, standard and price of goods, products or services.
• The right of a consumer to access various goods, services and products at competitive prices.
• The right to seek redressal at respective forums against unfair and restrictive trade practices.
• The right to receive adequate compensation or consideration from respective consumer forums in case the seller has wronged them.
• The right to receive consumer education.

Unfair trade practices under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019:

• Section 2(47) of the Act defines the term ‘unfair trade practices’ which include:
  • Manufacturing spurious goods or providing defective services.
  • Not issuing cash memos or bills for the goods purchased or services rendered.
  • Refusing to take back or withdraw the goods or services and not refunding the consideration taken for the purchase of the goods or services.
  • Disclosing the personal information of the consumer.

Offences and penalties listed under the Act:

• Punishment for false and misleading advertisements: Any manufacturer or service provider who promotes false or misleading advertisements will be punished with imprisonment for a term that may extend to two years and with fine that may extend to ten lakh rupees.
• Punishment for manufacturing, selling, distributing products containing adulterants: Any person who sells, manufactures, distributes products containing adulterants shall be penalised.

News Source: The Hindu

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Context:

• Recently, UNICEF released “The Climate Changed Child” report throws a spotlight on the threat to children due to water vulnerability.

Key Findings of the Report:

• Global Water Stress Exposure: Approximately half of the world’s children (953 million) faced high or extremely high water stress in 2022.

• Vulnerability Breakdown:
  • In 2022, 739 million children experienced high or extremely high water scarcity.
  • 436 million children lived in areas with high or extremely high water vulnerability.
• High Heatwave Frequency: 
  • Building on the Children’s Climate Risk Index (CCRI) released in 2021, the authors found that 559 million children are currently exposed to high heatwave frequency. 
    • This can impact all the 2.02 billion children globally by 2050, the new report added
  • Around 470 million children encountered high or extremely high drought risk.
• Health Implications: Extreme weather events linked to climate change, like floods, compromise safe water supply.
  • Floods contribute to the contamination of water, leading to health issues like diarrhea.

Key Recommendations: 

• Global Movement and Climate Action Plan:
  • UNICEF calls for a global movement and launches the Sustainability and Climate Action Plan.
  • The plan aims to address global gaps in protecting vulnerable children.
• UNICEF’s Call to Action at COP28:
  • Children on Climate Change Agenda: Urges COP28 to prioritize children in the climate change agenda.
  • Global Stocktake: Calls for embedding children and intergenerational equity in the Global Stocktake process.
    • Global Stocktake is a process for countries and stakeholders to see where they are collectively making progress towards meeting the goals of the Paris Climate Change Agreements and where they are not.
• Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA): Advocates for the inclusion of children and climate-resilient essential services in the decision on the Global Goal on Adaptation.
  • GGA collective commitment under Article 7.1 of the Paris Agreement is aimed at “enhancing” (the world’s) adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience, and reducing vulnerability to climate change.
• Loss and Damage Fund: Calls for making the Loss and Damage Fund child-responsive, embedding child rights in governance and decision-making processes.
  • The fund is aimed to provide financial assistance to countries most vulnerable and impacted by the effects of climate change and was a highlight at COP27.

News Source: DTE

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Context:

• Recently, the UNCCD, released policy recommendations during a five-day meeting from November 13-17 in Uzbekistan. 

UNCCD Statistics on Global Dust Emissions

• Global Dust Emissions: It reveals that human activities contribute to 25% of global dust emissions. Agriculture stands out as the primary anthropogenic source, impacting ecosystems worldwide.
• Alarming Land Loss: The world is losing almost 1 million square kilometres (386,000 square miles) of productive land yearly to sand and dust storms.
• Economic Loss: An estimated two billion tons of sand and dust enter the atmosphere every year, wreaking havoc across large parts of Asia and Africa and causing significant economic damage throughout the world.

About Sand and Dust Storms:

• Sand and dust storms are a meteorological phenomenon characterised by strong and turbulent winds lifting an ensemble of small particles to great heights. 
• They are known to adversely impact human health, the environment, and economies.
• These storms pose significant challenges to achieving 11 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
• Sources
  • Natural: About 75 percent of emissions come from natural sources such as hyper-arid regions, topographic depressions in arid areas and dry ancient lake beds with little vegetative cover.
  • Anthropogenic: Anthropogenic factors such as land-use change, agriculture, water diversion, and deforestation contribute to the remaining 25 percent.
• Consequences and Challenges:
  • Sand and dust storms lower the yields and productivity of crops, trees, pastures, and livestock. However, many of these impacts have not yet been well-quantified, according to the FAO report.
• Urgent Need for Policy and Action: The FAO report emphasizes the absence of policies addressing the risks posed by sand and dust storms. 

Key Recommendations:

• Improved Land Management: Emphasize enhanced practices for restoring damaged land.
• Early Warning System Enhancement: Strengthen systems for early detection and response to sand and dust storms.
• Financial Support Urgency: Address the significant funding gap, with only $15 billion allocated from 2016-2019.
• Private Sector Incentives: Introduce incentives and public funding to encourage responsible land use by the private sector.
• Global Collaboration Lessons: Learn from success stories like China while recognizing vulnerabilities to neighboring degraded lands.
• Integrated Climate Action: Sustain land restoration efforts as a vital component in mitigating climate change impacts.

News Source: DTE

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Context:

• Recently, the Defence Minister attended the 10th ASEAN Defence Ministers Meeting – Plus (ADMM Plus) in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Key Address by the Defence Minister at ADMM Plus

• Commitment to International Laws: 
  • The Defence Minister said that India is committed to freedom of navigation, overflight, and lawful commerce.
  • Adherence to international laws, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982.
• Terrorism as a Global Threat: 
  • Recognizing terrorism as a grave threat to international peace and security, the Defense Minister called for concerted efforts to address this global menace.
• Regional Security and Cooperation
  • ASEAN’s Centrality: Acknowledging ASEAN’s centrality, he advocated for regional security initiatives that are consultative and development-oriented. 
  • India expressed its commitment to fostering practical, forward-looking, and result-oriented cooperation with ADMM Plus, particularly aimed at enhancing regional maritime security.

What is ADMM Plus?

• It is a platform for ASEAN (The Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and its eight Dialogue Partners to strengthen security and defence cooperation for peace, stability, and development in the region.

• Composition: 10 ASEAN nations and eight dialogue partners, including India, China, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia and the United States.
• India become the Dialogue partner since 1992.
• Objectives of the ADMM Plus:
  • To promote mutual trust and confidence between defence establishments through greater dialogue and transparency;
  • To enhance regional peace and stability through cooperation in defence and security, in view of the transnational security challenges the region faces.

News Source: The Indian Express

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Context:

• Recently, the Reserve Bank of India raised risk weights on consumer loans, credit card exposures, and loans to non-bank financiers by 25 basis points.

Background

• Concerns of High Growth: RBI’s response to abnormally high growth in unsecured lending portfolios of banks and NBFCs.
• Sharp Rise: Unsecured loans, especially personal loans and credit cards, surpassed overall bank credit growth by approximately 15% in the past year.

About the News Guidelines:

• The RBI increased the risk weights for banks and NBFCs by 25 percentage points to 125% on retail loans.
  • Risk Weights: The capital that banks need to set aside for every loan.
• Applicable Loans
  • Banks: New risk weight applies to personal loans.
  • NBFCs: Applies to retail loans, excluding housing, education, vehicle loans, and loans secured by gold and gold jewellery.
• Specific Changes
  • Credit Card Exposures: Risk weights increased by 25 percentage points to 150% for banks and 125% for NBFCs.
• Additional Guidelines
  • Board-Approved Limits: Requirement for all banks and NBFCs to establish board-approved limits for unsecured consumer credit exposures.
  • Treatment of Top-Up Loans: Top-up loans against depreciating movable assets (e.g., vehicles) are considered as unsecured loans for credit appraisal and exposure purposes.

News Source: Livemint

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Context:

• The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the U.S. granted approval to the world’s first vaccine for chikungunya on November 9.

Ixchiq – World’s First Vaccine for Chikungunya

• Manufacturer: Valneva (European)
• Vaccine Name: Ixchiq
• Eligibility: Individuals aged 18 or older at an increased risk of chikungunya exposure.
• Vaccine Administration:
• • Dosage: Single-dose injection into the muscle.
  • Composition: Live, weakened chikungunya virus.

About Chikungunya Disease:

• Chikungunya disease, is characterised by severe joint pain and impaired mobility, and comes with fever. 
• Transmission: It is a viral infection (CHIKV) transmitted primarily by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes and has been described as “an emerging global health threat.”

• Treatment: As of now, there is no cure, only symptomatic relief, with analgesics to help with the pain, antipyretics for the fever, rest, and adequate fluids.
• Prevention: It includes mosquito control activities.
• Prevalent of Chikungunya: Brazil, Paraguay, India (as per the National Centre for Vector Borne Diseases Control, India had 93,455 suspected chikungunya cases until September in 2023), and parts of western Africa.

News Source: The Hindu

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Context:

• Recently, the Bihar Chief Minister said that he would launch a movement across the State if the Union government did not grant Bihar special category status.

What is the Special Category Status?

• Special Category Status was introduced in 1969 on the recommendations of the Fifth Finance Commission.
• SCS is a classification given by the Centre to assist development of states that face geographical and socio-economic disadvantages. (Constitution does not make a provision for SCS).
• Indicator for Special Category Status
  • International border proximity, 
  • Hilly terrain, 
  • Economic disparities.
  • Sizable tribal population and 
  • Infrastructural backwardness.
• State with Special Category Status
  • Eleven States: Assam, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttarakhand and Telangana.
  • Telangana, the newest State of India, was accorded the status as it was carved out of another State — Andhra Pradesh.
• Benefits of Special Category Status
  • Higher Central Funding: States with special status receive an increased share of Central funding. The government pays 90 percent of the funds in schemes that the Centre sponsors.
  • Financial Support for Development: Designated to provide financial support specifically for development purposes.
• The 14th Finance Commission has done away with the ‘special category status’ for states, except for the Northeastern and three hill states.
  • It suggested filling the resource gap of such states through tax devolution by increasing it to 42% from 32%.
• Concern With SCS:
  • It will further strained fiscal resources of center.
  • Similar demand from other states, For instance, demands from Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, etc.
  • Politicization of the issue by regional parties for electoral gains.

News Source: The Hindu

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Context:

• The UN Security Council has approved a resolution calling for “humanitarian pauses and corridors” in Gaza.

About the UN Resolution: 

• Malta’s Drafted Resolution
  • Calls for humanitarian corridors in Gaza.
  • Urges the release of all hostages held by Hamas.
• Resolution’s Impact: UN resolutions are legally binding but often ignored.
• Vote Outcome: The 15-member council vote was 12-0 in favor of the resolution.
• Abstentions and Reasons
  • US and UK Abstention
    • Due to the resolution’s failure to condemn Hamas’ cross-border attacks on October 7.
  • Russian Abstention
    • Russia abstained because the resolution didn’t demand a humanitarian cease-fire, opposing Israel and the United States.

About UN Security Council

• UN Organ: The UN Security Council is one of the six main organs of the United Nations. It was established by the  UN Charter in 1945. 
  • The other 5 organs of the United Nations are—the General Assembly (UNGA), the Trusteeship Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.
• Headquater: NewYork
• Primary Responsibility: Maintaining international peace and security.
• Council Composition
  • Membership: Consists of 15 Members (5 permanent, 10 non-permanent).
  • Five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 
  • Non-permanent member: Elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly.
    • Five from African and Asian States,
    • One from Eastern European States,
    • Two from Latin American States,
    • Two from Western European and other States.
  • Current Members:  Albania, Brazil, Ecuador, Gabon, Ghana, Japan, Malta, Mozambique, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates.
  • India’s Membership:
    • India has served seven times in the UN Security Council as a non-permanent member and in January 2021, India entered the UNSC for the eighth time.
  • Voting: Each Member has one vote. Decisions of the Security Council on matters are made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members.
  • Veto: A “No” vote from one of the five permanent members blocks the passage of the resolution.
• Presidency: The Security Council has a rotating Presidency, changing every month. (alphabetical Order).

News Source: The Hindu

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Context:

• This article is based on the news “On the sub categorisation within castes” Which was published in the Hindu. Recently, the Prime Minister of India promised to look into the sub categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SCs) to identify and help the most backward among them.

Telangana’s Reservation Battle: Madigas Seek Fair Share

• In Telangana, the Madiga Reservation Porata Samiti (MRPS) is demanding internal reclassification of Scheduled Caste reservations. 
• Of the nearly 17% Scheduled Caste population in Telangana, Madigas account for nearly 50% and they have claimed that their share of representation was being taken up by another Scheduled Caste community, the Malas. 
• According to the annual report of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, there were 1,263 SCs in the country in 2018-19.
• In the last few decades, multiple States like Punjab and Tamil Nadu have tried to bring in reservation laws at the State level to sub categorize Scheduled Caste.
  • However, currently the matter is referred to a larger bench of the Supreme Court.

What are Caste and Sub-Caste?

• Caste System in India: It is a social hierarchy that has existed for centuries, traditionally dividing people into different groups based on their occupations and social roles.
  • It is associated with main categories: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), Shudras (laborers and service providers), and the outcastes.
• SubCastes: There are numerous sub-castes and sub-groups within each of these main categories. These sub-castes often originated from regional, occupational, or social distinctions.

What is Sub categorisation of Caste?

• Sub Categorisation of Caste: It refers to further classifying broader caste groups into sub-groups based on various criteria. 
• Demand for Sub Categorisation of Caste: Over time, some castes and communities have sought recognition and specific privileges based on their unique characteristics, historical backgrounds, or socio-economic status. 
  • Sub-categorization attempts to address the diversity within larger caste groups and provide targeted benefits to specific sub-groups that may be perceived as socially and economically disadvantaged.

Also Read: Sub-Categorisation of OBCs

Why Is Sub categorisation within Caste Needed?

• To Address Inequalities Among Scheduled Caste Communities: There have been graded inequalities among SC communities and even among the marginalized, some communities have lesser access to basic facilities. 
  • The relatively more forward communities among them have managed to avail benefits consistently while crowding the more backward ones out. 
• Disproportionate Share in Opportunities: The policy of protective and compensatory discrimination leads to disproportional representation of sub-castes in employment, education, and legislature.
• • In Tamil Nadu, a 3% quota within the Scheduled Caste quota is accorded to the Arundhatiyar caste, after Justice M S Janarthanam report stated that despite being 16% of the SC population in the state, they held only 0-5% of the jobs.
• Overcoming Hierarchy Practiced within  Scheduled Castes: The Scheduled Caste category is not homogenous and comprises a wide range of communities with distinct cultural, social, and economic characteristics. 
  • Some SC communities may have made progress in education, employment, and socio-economic development, while others continue to face significant disadvantages.
• Help  Scheduled Castes to Secure Social Mobility: The reservation policy is ineffective in providing benefits to every sub-caste group at a uniform level which resulted in competition and conflict between various sub-caste groups of Scheduled Castes. 
  • The acquisition of political power, educational improvement, and occupational change could become the major assets for Scheduled Castes’ upward mobility, which acts as a major factor for the demand for sub-categorization.
• Ensuring Social Justice: Social justice emphasizes ensuring that historically marginalized communities receive fair and just treatment and that their specific concerns are adequately addressed. 
  • Sub-categorization allows for a more targeted approach in addressing the specific vulnerabilities and needs of particular SC sub-groups. 
• Ensuring Equitable Distribution of Resources: Sub-categorization could help avoid the concentration of benefits in certain communities while others remain underserved. 
  • For this, States have tried to divide the scheduled caste quota on the grounds that caste is a form of graded inequality. Punjab created an order of preferences in 1975 within scheduled castes for recruitment. 

What challenges are associated with the Sub categorisation of Caste?

• May Not Address the Problem of  Inequality within  Scheduled Castes (SCs): According to the National Commission for Schedule Tribes (NCST), the most backward  Scheduled Castes are lagging so far behind forward Scheduled Caste communities that a separate quota would not help. 
  • The NCSC and the NCST had thus recommended that existing schemes and government benefits first reach these sections before any sub-categorisation.
• Issue of Federalism: The Supreme Court held in 2004 that the State did not have the power to unilaterally sub-categorise communities in the list of SCs. The Constitution has provided that these lists can only be made by Parliament and notified by the President. 
  • However, a five-judge Bench headed by Justice Arun Mishra had held in a 2020 judgment, that deciding on the quantum of benefits in the lists of SCs/STs already notified would not amount to “tinkering” with it and that States could do it. The judgment has been referred to the larger Bench. 
• Identification and Criteria: Determining the criteria for sub-categorization can be challenging. Parameters such as socio-economic status, educational attainment, or regional factors may be considered, but reaching a consensus on these criteria can be difficult.
  • In a 1976 case, State of Kerala v N M Thomas, the Supreme Court laid down that “Scheduled Castes are not castes, they are class.”
  • In the E V Chinnaiah case in 2005, the court had held that special protection of SCs is based on the premise that “all Scheduled Castes can and must collectively enjoy the benefits of reservation regardless of inter­se inequality” because the protection is not based on educational, economic or other such factors but solely on those who suffered untouchability.
• Data Accuracy and Availability: Concrete population numbers of each community and sub-community and their respective socio-economic data are necessary, which can provide a reasonable ground to decide how castes can be categorised, how much percentage should be given, etc. 
  • Obtaining accurate and up-to-date data on the socio-economic status of different Scheduled Caste communities is a challenge. 
• Potential for Intra-group Disputes: Sub-categorization may lead to internal divisions and disputes among SC communities. Some groups may feel marginalized from the benefits, leading to social tensions within the broader  Scheduled Caste category. 
  • For instance, backwardness among  Scheduled Castes also draws from the practice of untouchability, and sub categorisation may sharpen differences within and bring in competitive affirmative action. 
• Possibility of Fragmentation: The issue of caste and reservations is a complex and sensitive one in India and there is a risk that sub-categorization might lead to the fragmentation of the SC community, diluting their political and social identity. This could weaken their collective strength in advocating for their rights. 

Way Forward: 

• Exploring Alternatives to Introduce Sub-Categorisation: The Union government needs to explore legal options for the same. For instance, the Attorney General of India (AGI) had opined that a constitutional amendment could be brought in to facilitate this.
  • The NCSC and NCST had opined that Article 16(4) of the Constitution already provided for States to create special laws for any backward classes it felt were under-represented.
  • The Usha Mehra committee recommended the inclusion of Clause (3) in Article 341 through a constitutional amendment empowering state legislature to enact reclassification of the Scheduled Caste category subject to Presidential confirmation.
• Data Collection and Analysis: Ensuring comprehensive and accurate data collection on the socio-economic conditions of different Scheduled Caste communities. 
  • For instance, a caste-based census could provide more accurate and up-to-date data on the social and economic status of various caste groups, helping formulate and evaluate affirmative action policies and welfare programs.
• Concept Of Creamy-Layer: The concept of a “creamy layer” within SCs was upheld by the court in a 2018 judgment in Jarnail Singh v Lachhmi Narain Gupta.
  • The “creamy layer” concept puts an income ceiling on those eligible for reservation. While this concept applies to Other Backward Castes, it was applied to promotions of Scheduled Castes for the first time in 2018.
• Criteria Development: Develop transparent and inclusive criteria for sub-categorization, considering factors such as socio-economic status, educational attainment, and regional disparities.
  • The Andhra Pradesh government in 1996 formed a Commission of Justice Ramachandra Raju, which recommended sub categorisation of Scheduled Caste in the State based on evidence that some communities were more backward and had less representation than others. 
• Following the Middle Path: Strike a balance between recognizing the diversity within the Scheduled Caste category and maintaining the overall unity of the community. 
  • Policies need to address the specific needs of sub-groups without causing fragmentation or weakening the collective strength of the SC community.

Conclusion:

The Sub Categorisation of Scheduled Caste is imperative to address internal disparities, ensure targeted social justice, and promote equitable distribution of resources, but careful consideration of constitutional provisions, data accuracy, and potential challenges is essential to navigating this complex terrain for the collective upliftment of marginalized communities.

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Context:

• This article is based on the news “India must bring in changes in its policy towards Myanmar” Which was published in the Live Mint.  India on 16 November called for a cessation of fighting between Myanmar’s military and anti-junta groups near the India Myanmar border that has triggered an influx of Myanmar refugees to Mizoram.

Armed Conflict in Myanmar

• Current Conflict: Since last month, the Myanmar military (Junta) has faced a major coordinated offensive from an alliance of three ethnic armed forces. This led to the rebels capturing several towns and security outposts.

• Result of the Conflict: Concurrent assaults by other militias in the Chin and Sagaing regions, adjoining India, have precipitated the flight of around 5,000 people, including some military personnel, into India’s Mizoram..
• The  offensive was seen as a significant challenge for the Junta. since conflict broke out in Myanmar after the military seized power from the elected government of  Aung San Suu Kyi in February  2021.
• The various PDF (the People’s Defense Force), a pro-democracy armed group established after the 2021 army coup, operates around the country and has joined forces with well-organized, battle-hardened ethnic armed groups including those in the three Brotherhood Alliance.

History of Political Unrest in Myanmar

• Parliamentary Democracy Phase
  • Burma, now Myanmar, gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948.
  • The country established a democracy based on the parliamentary system.
• First Phase of Military Rule
  • In 1962, General Ne Win staged a coup d’état, establishing a military dictatorship.
  • The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) became the country’s sole political party.
• Second Phase of Political Conflict
  • Economic decline and corruption led to widespread unrest in the 1980s.
  • In 1988, General Saw Maung seized control of the government, overthrowing the BSPP.
  • The military continued to rule under the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
• Democratic Transition Phase
  • In 2010, the SPDC held elections, paving the way for a quasi-civilian government.
  • Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy (NLD) won the 2015 elections.
• 2021 Military Coup and Subsequent Civil War
  • The NLD’s landslide victory in the 2020 elections sparked concern among the military.
  • The Tatmadaw (military) alleged electoral fraud and staged a coup in February 2021.
  • The coup led to widespread protests, mass arrests, and the formation of resistance groups.
• Anti-Junta Armed Struggle
  • The National Unity Government (NUG) was formed as a parallel government to the junta.
  • The NUG aims to unite opposition groups and establish a post-junta Myanmar.
  • In September 2021, the NUG declared war on the junta and formed the People’s Defence Force.

Why has Myanmar endured so many ethnic conflicts?

• Ethnic Diversity and Inequality
  • Myanmar is a land of rich ethnic diversity, with over 100 distinct ethnic groups identified within its borders. 

• • However, the majority of Bamar people have historically held a privileged position in society, controlling the government and military. 
  • This has left many ethnic minority groups feeling marginalized and discriminated against.
• A Legacy of Colonialism and Division
  • Myanmar’s ethnic conflicts have deep roots in the country’s colonial past. British colonial rule exacerbated divisions between ethnic groups, favoring the Bamar while suppressing minority cultures and languages. This legacy of inequality has persisted even after independence.
• Armed Struggles and Repression
  • The grievances of ethnic minority groups have often erupted into armed conflict. Since independence, Myanmar has witnessed numerous rebellions and insurgencies, as various ethnic groups (such as the Karen National Liberation Army in Kayin State; the Kachin Independence Army in Kachin State; and the Shan State Army in Shan State; among other groups) have sought to assert their autonomy or achieve self-determination.
• The Rohingya Crisis: A Stark Example of Ethnic Persecution
  • In 2017, the Myanmar military launched a brutal crackdown against the Rohingya, resulting in widespread killings, rape, and displacement. The United Nations has described the atrocities committed against the Rohingya as a genocide.
• The 2021 Coup and Its Impact on Ethnic Conflicts
  • The 2021 military coup in Myanmar further exacerbated ethnic tensions. The coup has led to increased violence against ethnic minority groups, as the military seeks to suppress dissent and consolidate its power.

Importance of India Myanmar Relations: India and Myanmar have a rich cultural and religious exchange history dating back centuries.

• Cultural Linkages: Given India’s Buddhist heritage, India and Myanmar share close cultural ties and a sense of deep kinship. Building on this shared heritage, India is undertaking some key initiatives in restoring the Ananda Temple in Bagan and repairing and conserving many damaged pagodas.
• Geographical Significance: India shares a long land border of over 1643 km with Myanmar and a maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal. 
  • It is the only ASEAN country adjoining India and, therefore, is a gateway to South East Asia. India seeks to enhance its cooperation with Myanmar in line with our ‘Act East’ and ‘Neighborhood First’ Policies. 
• Commercial Cooperation: India is the fifth-largest trading partner of Myanmar. The bilateral trade stood at US$ 1.03 billion in 2021-22. The growth is, however, not commensurate with the potential. India-Myanmar bilateral trade is conducted under the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) and India’s DutyFree Tariff Preference (DFTP) scheme. 
• Investment: India stands at 11th position with an approved investment of US$ 773.038 million by 34 Indian enterprises as of 31 January 2022. 
  • 13 Indian Public SectorUndertakings have a presence in Myanmar in different sectors, with a concentration in oil and gas.
• Energy Cooperation: Myanmar is potentially an important partner in the energy sector as future offshore gas finds can be piped to India. 
  • India currently has a Joint Working Group (JWG) on Oil and Gas, a Joint Steering Committee (JSC) & a Joint Working Group (JWG) on Power Cooperation and a Joint Working Group (JWG) on Renewable Energy.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity: India has invested heavily in infrastructure projects in Myanmar, such as the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project which aims to connect India’s northeastern states with Southeast Asia.

• • Trilateral Highway Project, which is an East-West corridor connecting our Northeast with Myanmar and Thailand.

• • In September 2022, India and Myanmar signed a Project Agreement for constructing a Modern Integrated Checkpost at Tamu in Myanmar.
• Development Cooperation: India’s development assistance portfolio in Myanmar is now over US $1.75 billion. The bulk of this assistance is grant-funded. 
  • For Example: Assistance in setting up Myanmar Institute of Information Technology, Advanced Centre for Agricultural Research and Education, Myanmar-India Centre for Enhancement of IT Skills, Rakhine State Development Programme, etc
• Security Significance: Myanmar’s political stability is important for India’s regional security concerns. Instability in Myanmar could spill over into India’s northeastern states, posing challenges for border security and ethnic insurgencies. India has provided military assistance to Myanmar to help address security threats along the shared border.
• Humanitarian Aid and Disaster Relief: India has responded promptly and effectively in rendering assistance following natural calamities in Myanmar like Cyclone Mora (2017), Komen (2015), earthquake in Shan State (2010,  etc.
  • India supported Myanmar in its fight against COVID-19, in total, India supplied more than 20 million doses of COVID-19 vaccine to Myanmar, including both gift and commercial supplies. 

Major Concerns in India Myanmar Relation: India’s concerns in Myanmar are multifaceted and stem from the country’s internal situation and geopolitical context. 

• India’s Policy Paradox: Commitment to democracy vs. Security concerns.
  • New Delhi walks a fine diplomatic line regarding the Junta. India needs Myanmar’s cooperation on border and connectivity issues and wants to avoid Myanmar becoming fully reliant on China.
• China’s Inroads: China has been steadily increasing its influence in Myanmar, investing heavily in infrastructure projects and expanding its economic footprint. India is wary of this development, as it fears that China could use its position to gain strategic dominance in the region and undermine India’s own interests.
  • For example, India’s announcement of the Sairang-Hmawngbuchhuah railway project near the Myanmar border, under India’s Act East Policy, aims to counter China’s railway access in Myanmar through Yunnan and the ambitious China-Myanmar Economic Corridor.
• Refugee Influx: The ongoing violence and instability in Myanmar have led to a surge in the number of refugees fleeing to India, particularly Mizoram.  
  • Over 54,100 Myanmar nationals have sought refuge in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland, straining resources and posing security challenges for India.
  • According to Intelligence agencies Illegal Migration of Rohingya poses grave security concerns to India.
• Drug Menace: Myanmar’s Golden Triangle region is a notorious hub for drug trafficking, and the political instability in the country has raised concerns that the drug trade could flourish, posing a serious threat to India’s northeastern states.
  • The nexus between drug cartels and insurgent groups in the region further complicates the situation.
• Regional connectivity Projects: Conflict could affect regional connectivity projects. India aims to strengthen integration with its neighbours to the north and east through the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral and Technical Cooperation. 
  • MEA Jaishankar emphasizing the need to expedite “projects that have faced challenges in the recent past.”
• India’s Balancing Act: India faces a delicate balancing act in its approach to Myanmar. On the one hand, India wants to support the pro-democracy movement and promote human rights in Myanmar. 
  • On the other hand, India also wants to maintain a good relationship with the military junta, as it relies on the junta to control insurgent groups operating along the India Myanmar border.

Also Read: India’s Northeast Border Tension

Way forward

• Support for democracy and human rights: India should continue to advocate for the restoration of democracy and respect for human rights in Myanmar. This includes calling for the release of political prisoners and an end to the military junta’s crackdown on dissent.
  • The United Nations Special Rapporteur has reported an increase in India’s arms supply to the military since the coup. Arming the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Military) undermines India’s position on restoring democracy.
• Engagement with all stakeholders: India should use its influence to open channels of dialogue with and between the junta and the opposition, including armed ethnic groups. The shifting of Aung San Suu Kyi to house arrest opens up new possibilities and could prove valuable to all parties involved in any such dialogue.
  • This engagement should promote dialogue and compromise and find a peaceful solution to the country’s crisis.
• Regional Cooperation: New Delhi should collaborate closely with the ASEAN nations to assess whether their proposed peace plan requires reformulation or revisions. 
  • Working in coordination with regional partners can enhance the effectiveness of initiatives to bring stability and peace to Myanmar. 
  • India’s active involvement in regional forums will strengthen collective efforts to address the crisis and find viable solutions.
• Economic Engagement: India should continue to engage with Myanmar economically, but it should do so in a way that promotes sustainable development and benefits the people of Myanmar. This includes investing in infrastructure projects and supporting the development of Myanmar’s private sector.
• Security Cooperation: Given the presence of insurgent groups along the India Myanmar border, robust counterterrorism cooperation is essential. 
  • India can collaborate closely with Myanmar in intelligence sharing and coordinated efforts to combat these groups. Still, it should do so in a way that does not legitimise the military Junta.                         
  • This includes working with Myanmar to address threats such as terrorism and drug trafficking.
• Solidarity with the People of Myanmar: India’s approach should prioritize humanitarian assistance and support for displaced people and showcase its commitment to regional stability.
  • Providing aid and service to those affected by the crisis will alleviate suffering and demonstrate India’s solidarity with the people of Myanmar according to Harsh V. Pant.

Conclusion:

With the ground situation in Myanmar evolving rapidly, India’s efforts hold immense significance in fostering regional peace and cooperation and preserving Indian interests in a country that is critical for India’s own internal security in the northeast.

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