Context: A five-judge constitution bench headed by the Chief Justice of India (CJI) verbally observed Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, is a “beneficial provision.”

Supreme Court Hearing on the Challenge to Section 6A of the Citizenship Act 

• The Constitution bench, is hearing 17 petitions to examine the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act relating to illegal immigrants in Assam.
• Section 6A was inserted in the Citizenship Act as a special provision to deal with the citizenship of people covered under the Assam Accord.

Timeline of Case: 

• In December 2014, the Supreme Court identified 13 key questions surrounding the constitutionality of the provision, including:
  • Does Section 6A dilute the political rights of Assamese citizens?
  • Does it violate the rights of Assamese people to preserve their cultural heritage?
  • Does the influx of illegal immigrants constitute “external aggression” or “internal disturbance”?
• In 2015, the case was referred to a Constitution Bench for further hearing and consideration.

What is Section 6A of the Citizenship Act?

• As per Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, people who entered India between January 1, 1966, and March 25, 1971, and have been living in Assam, will be allowed to register themselves as citizens.
• Under Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, foreigners who entered Assam before January 1, 1966, and have been “ordinarily resident” in the state, would have all the rights and obligations of Indian citizens. 
• Those who had entered between January 1, 1966, and March 25, 1971, would have the same rights and obligations except that they would not be able to vote for 10 years.

What are the main challenges to Section 6A?

• Encouraging “foreign infiltration”: Petitioners argue that Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, by providing a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants who entered Assam before 1971, actually incentivized further “foreign infiltration” into the state.
  • This is because it gave hope to illegal immigrants that they could eventually obtain citizenship, even if they entered the country illegally.
• Destruction of local cultural identity:
  • Petitioners also claim that the influx of illegal immigrants has led to the destruction of the local Assamese cultural identity.
  • This is due to factors such as demographic changes, competition for resources, and potential assimilation of indigenous communities.

• Unjustified special treatment for Assam: Petitioners argue that there is no justification for singling out Assam and subjecting it to a different citizenship regime compared to other Indian states.
  • They claim that the justification of a violent political agitation leading to a political settlement (Assam Accord) is not sufficient to justify such a significant departure in policy.
• Arbitrary and discriminatory:
  • Section 6A of the Citizenship Act has also been challenged on the grounds of being arbitrary and discriminatory.
  • Critics argue that it violates the fundamental right to equality by providing preferential treatment to a specific group of illegal immigrants based on their date of entry.
• Lack of clarity on the definition of “infiltration”: There is also some lack of clarity on the definition of “infiltration” used in Section 6A.
  • This lack of clarity creates confusion and uncertainty and can lead to potential misuse of the provision.
• Assam Accord-1985:
  • It was signed by the All Assam Students Union, the Assam government, and the Government of India on August 15, 1985, to detect and deport foreigners to the state.
• What is NRC in Assam?
  • The NRC in Assam is basically a list of Indian citizens living in the state. The citizens’ register sets out to identify foreign nationals in the state that borders Bangladesh.
  • The process to update the register began following a Supreme Court order in 2013, with the state’s nearly 33 million people having to prove that they were Indian nationals before March 24, 1971.
  • The updated final NRC was released on August 31, with over 1.9 million applicants failing to make it to the list.

Source: The Hindu

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Context: Lok Sabha passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Amendment Bill, 2023, and Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Amendment Bill, 2023.

About Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Amendment Bill 2023

• The Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Amendment Bill, 2023, amends the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act of 2004. 
  • The Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act of 2004 provides for job reservation and admission in professional institutions to members of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other socially and educationally backward classes.  

What are the key features of the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Amendment Bill 2023?

• Socially and educationally backward classes: Under the Act, socially and educationally backward classes include: 
  • (i) people residing in villages declared as socially and educationally backward by the Union Territory (UT) of Jammu and Kashmir, 
  • (ii) people residing in areas adjoining the Actual Line of Control and International Border, and 
  • (iii) weak and under-privileged classes (social castes), as notified.  
• Commission’s Authority for Classification: The government may make inclusions or exclusions from the category of weak and under-privileged classes, on the recommendations of a Commission.  
• Omission of Previous Definition: The Bill substitutes weak and underprivileged classes with other backward classes as declared by the UT of Jammu and Kashmir. The definition of weak and underprivileged classes is deleted from the Act.

About Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Amendment Bill 2023

• It amends the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.  
• Objective: The Act provides for the reorganization of the state of Jammu and Kashmir into the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir (with legislature) and Ladakh (without legislature).

What are the key features of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Amendment Bill 2023?

• Number of seats in the Legislative Assembly: 
  • The Second Schedule of the Representation of the People Act, of 1950 provides for the number of seats in legislative assemblies.
  • The 2019 Act amended the Second Schedule of the 1950 Act to specify the total number of seats in the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly to be 83.  
    • Resevation: It reserved six seats for Scheduled Castes. No seats were reserved for Scheduled Tribes.  
  • Number of Seats: The Bill increases the total number of seats to 90. It also reserves seven seats for Scheduled Castes and nine seats for Scheduled Tribes. 
  • Nomination of Kashmiri Migrants: The Bill adds that the Lieutenant Governor may nominate up to two members from the Kashmiri migrant community to the Legislative Assembly.  
    • One of the nominated members must be a woman.  
  • Migrants also include individuals who have not been registered due to: 
    • Being in government service in any moving office, 
    • Having left for work, or 
    • Possessing immovable property at the place from where they migrated but are unable to reside there due to disturbed conditions.
• Nomination of displaced persons: 
  • The Bill adds that the Lieutenant Governor may nominate one member representing displaced persons from Pakistan-occupied Jammu and Kashmir to the Legislative Assembly. 
    • Such displacement should have occurred in 1947-48, 1965, or 1971 due to civil disturbances or fear of such disturbances.  These include successors-in-interest of such persons.
    • Displaced persons refer to individuals who left or were displaced from their place of residence in Pakistan-occupied Jammu and Kashmir and continue to reside outside such a place.  

Also Read: On Jammu And Kashmir And Statehood

Source: PIB

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Context: Recently, Scientists have brought the Propulsion Module of the Chandrayaan-3 mission back into Earth orbit.

Chandrayaan-3 Propulsion Module Returns to Earth Orbit

• The Chandrayaan-3 mission included a Propulsion Module (PM) that carried the lander to within 100 km of the lunar surface.
• ISRO successfully returned the Propulsion Module (PM) of Chandrayaan-3 to Earth orbit.
• This maneuver was not part of the original mission plan and utilized leftover fuel.

About the Propulsion Module:

• Chandrayaan-3 Mission Features:
  • Unlike Chandrayaan-2, which failed in September 2019, Chandrayaan-3 featured a light Propulsion Module instead of a full-fledged orbiter.
  • For communications with Earth stations, the mission used the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter, which was still in orbit around the Moon.
  • The PM carried an experimental payload called the Spectro Polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) for studying Earth’s habitability and identifying habitable exoplanets.
  • Function: The main function of PM is to carry the LM [or Lander Module] from launch vehicle injection till the final lunar 100 km circular polar orbit and separate the LM from the PM.
• Maneuvers and Current Status:
  • ISRO performed maneuvers to raise the PM’s orbit around the Moon and then target an Earth orbit of 1.8 lakh x 3.8 lakh km.
  • The Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver was performed on October 13, and the PM made four Moon fly-bys before leaving the Moon’s sphere of influence on November 10.
  • Currently, the PM is orbiting Earth with an orbit period of nearly 13 days, and SHAPE payload operations are ongoing.
• Significance of the Experiment:
  • It allows ISRO to understand the planning and execution of trajectory and maneuvers to return from the Moon to Earth for a small spacecraft.
  • Contributes to the development of a software module for future missions
  • Enables the planning and execution of gravity-assisted flybys and
  • Avoids the uncontrolled crashes on the Moon’s surface at the end of the spacecraft’s life.

More Information on Chandrayan 3

News Source: Indian Express

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Context: India has successfully phased out ozone-depleting and climate-warming chemical HCFC 141b and is ahead of schedule in eliminating another such gas, HCFCs, according to a government report.

India Achieves Complete Phase-Out of One the Most Potent Ozone-Depleting Chemical

• Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2019 issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986  prohibited issuance of import license for HCFC-141b.
• With this notification, prohibiting the import of HCFC-141 b, the country has completely phased out the important ozone-depleting chemical.

About Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)-141 b:

• Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)-141 b, which is a chemical used by foam manufacturing enterprises and one of the most potent ozone-depleting chemical after Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• (HCFC)-141 b is used mainly as a blowing agent in the production of rigid polyurethane (PU) foams.

About the Report:

• The report was jointly brought out by the Environment Ministry and UNDP, during a side-event of the annual climate talks COP28.
• India has achieved a significant 33 percent reduction in emission intensity of the economy in 2019, surpassing the target set for 2030.

About Montreal Protocol:

• It is an international environmental agreement adopted on September 16, 1987.
• It is the sole UN treaty universally ratified by all 197 member states, aiming to safeguard the Earth’s ozone layer by phasing out the use of ozone-depleting substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
• Objective: To protect the Earth’s ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ODS.

The Kigali Amendment:

• Adopted in 2016, the Kigali Amendment aims to phase down the production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are potent greenhouse gases
• In 2016, countries agreed to include HFCs in the list of controlled substances under the Montreal Protocol and decided on a schedule for its phase-down. 
• Before the middle of this century, current HFC use has to be curtailed by at least 85 percent. India has to achieve this target by 2047 while the developed countries have to do it by 2036. 

India’s Achievements in Implementing the Montreal Protocol:

• India as a party since 1992 has successfully implemented the Montreal Protocol for phasing out Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS).
• India phased out Chlorofluorocarbons, Carbon Tetrachloride, Halons, Methyl Bromide, and Methyl Chloroform by January 1, 2010.
• Currently, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are being phased out in stages:
  • Stage I: 2012-2016 (completed)
  • Stage II: 2017-2023 (under implementation)
  • Stage III: 2023-2030 (to be implemented)
• Phase-out of HCFCs in manufacturing sectors (refrigeration & air-conditioning) will be completed by January 1, 2025.
• Estimated reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions:
  • 465 million tonnes CO2 equivalent by 2022
  • 778 million tonnes CO2 equivalent by 2030
• India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) supports the adoption of climate-friendly alternatives and promotes energy efficiency during the HFC phase-out.
  • The India Cooling Action seeks to
    • Reduce cooling demand across sectors by 20% to 25% by 2037-38
    • Reduce refrigerant demand by 25% to 30% by 2037-38
    • Reduce cooling energy requirements by 25% to 40% by 2037-38

Must read Methane Alert And Response System (MARS) here.

News Source: Economic Time

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Context: Recently, India has refused to sign the COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health.

What is the Cop28 Declaration on Climate and Health?

• Participants: The COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health was signed by 123 countries, including major nations like the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and the European Union.
• Notable Absences: India did not sign the COP28 declaration on climate and health.
• Incorporation of Health Considerations: Countries committed to incorporating health considerations within the context of the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) processes.
• Integration of Health in Climate Planning: The declaration emphasized the integration of health considerations in designing nationally determined contributions, long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies, national adaptation plans, and adaptation communications.
• One Health Approach: Countries are encouraged to implement a One Health approach that considers the interconnectedness of human health, animal health, and the environment.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Health Systems: The declaration calls for efforts to assess and address the greenhouse gas emissions of health systems, promoting sustainability in healthcare.
• Addressing Environmental and Climatic Factors: Countries are urged to address the linkages between environmental and climatic factors and antimicrobial resistance. 
  • Additionally, the declaration emphasizes the importance of early detection of zoonotic spillovers for effective pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response.
• Climate Finance: A $1 billion in financing for climate and health is to be provided by the Rockefeller Foundation, Green Climate Fund, Asian Development Bank, and Global Fund, among other funding agencies.

Are There Any Limitations Or Concerns Raised?

• When it comes to the limitations of the declaration, it is not a legally binding document and just a voluntary adoption for the countries. 

Why did India refuse to Sign the Declaration on climate and health at COP28?

• Practical Concerns: Curbing greenhouse gases for cooling in the health sector is impractical due to the need for cold storage rooms for vaccines and medicines.
  • Fulfilling the declaration’s terms within a short timeframe is not feasible.
• Moral High Ground: India has historically contributed less than 4% of global emissions.
  • As a developing nation, India has a right to use resources like coal for its development needs.
• Balancing Development and Transition: India faces the unique challenge of transitioning to renewable energy while meeting its development needs.
  • Decarbonizing the health sector presents both challenges and economic opportunities.
• Nuances of Climate Agreements: Asian countries face dual challenges of extreme weather events and universal health coverage, making climate agreements complex.

Also read COP28 Approved Agreement on New “Loss and Damage” Fund for Vulnerable Countries here.

News Source: Livemint

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Context: Recently, the Indian Prime Minister launched the Green Credit Program.

• During COP28 in Dubai, he emphasized that the Green Credit program surpasses the commercial nature of carbon credits.

What is the Green Credit Program?

• Launched by: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in October 2023.
  • The Green Credit program was first announced in the 2023-24 Union Budget to incentivize voluntary environmental actions of various stakeholders.
• Administered by: The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE).
• Focus on: Generating Green Credits through plantation on degraded wasteland.
  • Its initial phase focuses on water conservation and afforestation.

• A Market-based Approach: It is an effort to create a market-based incentive for different kinds of environment-positive actions, not just for carbon emission reductions.
  • This Green Credit program attempts to use this market-based mechanism for other environmental actions, like water conservation or soil improvements. 
• CSR Obligations: As a starting point, the private companies would buy these green credits as part of their CSR obligations.
  • The Companies Act, 2013 provides for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Companies are required to spend a minimum of 2% of their net profit over the preceding three years as CSR.
• Measurement on Performance: Methodologies and standards to measure and verify such actions are still being developed. The market would also need to be developed. 
• Significance: Green Credit program has a wider reach as it could benefit both individuals and communities.
  • At COP28, the Indian PM offered the concept to the international community, in the hope of creating a market for green credits at an international level.
    • While the carbon markets focused more on industry and corporations.
  • Surpassing the Carbon Credits: The initiative has the potential to achieve optimal returns beyond just carbon.
  • Achievement towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): It would be a step towards achieving 
    • SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
    • SDG 13: Climate Action
    • SDG 15: Life on Land
• Concerns: The initiative may lead to Greenwashing.
  • Greenwashing is the act of making false or misleading statements about the environmental benefits of a product or practice.
  • Experts are also raising concerns about the effectiveness of the mechanisms, monitoring, and verification.

Know more about the Green Credit Scheme here.

News Source: The Indian Express

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Context: Recently, the Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative (AGII) was launched at the 28th Conference of Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

• COP28 UAE will build on an investment of US$4.5 billion of private, public, and development capital.

About the Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative

• Aim: The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative is an ambitious programme to upscale and accelerate green industries and businesses across Africa.
• Launched by: The presidents and representatives from Kenya, Angola, Burundi, Djibouti, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, and Zambia, as well as COP28 President Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber.
• A Collaborative Approach: The initiative will bring together African Governments, the initiative’s partners, and other supporting institutions to offer accelerated end-to-end green growth solutions for committed governments.
• Organization of Work: The work will be organized in two parallel and mutually enforcing work streams:
  • Delivering Transformational Projects
  • Effecting Systemic Change
• Counter the Climate Change: The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative incorporates elements of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement.
  • It discourages fossil fuel production and use which immensely contributes to global warming. 
• Emphasis on: The importance of green industrialisation to harness Africa’s vast and quality resources to secure prosperity for all. 
• Significance: The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative is important for Africa and also for the attainment of global climate ambitions (as per present leaders and delegations).
  • African policy experts also embraced it and identified it as the Holy Grail of the continent’s socioeconomic transformation. 
  • As per the Economic Report on Africa 2016: Greening Africa’s Industrialization, published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)- “Green industrialization is a precondition for sustainable and inclusive growth”.
• Resources Availability: It has approximately 30% of the world’s reserves, including about 85% of manganese, 80% of platinum and chromium, 47% of cobalt, 21% of graphite, and 6% of copper.
  • Global Supply: Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) with its cobalt reserves and Zimbabwe’s lithium deposits play pivotal roles in the global supply chain.
• Challenges: 
  • Impact on Economy: Countries such as Angola and Nigeria heavily rely on oil and to abandon fossil fuel would severely damage their economies.
  • Impact on Aspirations: Countries such as Ghana, Uganda, Liberia, and Sierra Leone have recently discovered oil and are expecting profit but to abandon fossil fuel would severely damage their aspirations and economies.

How can India benefit from the Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative?

• Market Access: The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative presents a vast potential market for Indian businesses in green technologies, renewable energy, sustainable infrastructure, and related services. 
  • As Africa transitions towards a green economy, Indian companies can leverage their expertise and cost-competitiveness to supply these technologies and services.
• Investment Opportunities: AGII’s focus on green infrastructure and industrial development creates investment opportunities for Indian companies in various sectors, including renewable energy projects, green hydrogen production, sustainable mining of critical minerals, and green logistics.
• Joint Ventures: Indian companies can partner with African counterparts to establish joint ventures for manufacturing, assembly, and distribution of green technologies and products. This can create mutually beneficial partnerships, leverage local knowledge and expertise, and contribute to technology transfer.
• Technology and Knowledge Transfer: India has accumulated significant experience and expertise in renewable energy, sustainable technologies, and green development strategies. 
  • The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative provides an opportunity to share this expertise with African countries through capacity-building programs, knowledge exchange initiatives, and technical assistance.
• Joint Research and Development: India can collaborate with African research institutions and universities on joint R&D projects to develop innovative and context-specific green technologies tailored to the needs of the continent.
• Strategic Partnerships: The Africa Green Industrialisation Initiative can be a platform for India to further strengthen its strategic partnerships with African countries.
• Collaboration on green industrialisation initiatives can foster mutual trust and cooperation, promote regional integration, and contribute to a more secure and stable Africa.

Also Read: Africa To Solve World’s Critical Mineral Challenge

News Source: Down to Earth

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Context: The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) launched a seed fund scheme for start-ups operating in the area of urban development and disaster management by using space technology.

About Seed Fund Scheme

• The Seed Fund Scheme is a part of IN-SPACe’s efforts to provide a special thrust to enhance the space activity capabilities of the nation with the active participation of the start-ups.

What are the key features of the Seed Fund Scheme?

• Prototype Development: Selected start-ups will receive seed funding for transforming an original idea into a prototype using space technology.
• Collaboration: It has been launched in collaboration with ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC).
• Aim: To support Indian space start-ups that aim to develop innovative space products and services.
• Financial Assistance: Rs 1 crore
• It offers mentorship support, training and networking opportunities.

Also Read: Hybrid Seeds In Indian Agriculture

News Source: Financial Express

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Context: Garba has been declared as an Intangible Heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

Garba of Gujarat has been declared an Intangible Heritage by UNESCO

• The decision was reached at the 18th session of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage  held at the Cresta Mowana Resort in Kasane, Botswana.
• According to UNESCO’s citation, Garba is not merely a dance but a cultural legacy which has continued through generations in both urban and rural settings.
• Other recent additions include;
  • the rickshaws and rickshaw painting in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Indonesia’s Jamu wellness culture, and Thailand’s Songkran festival.

About Garba Dance:

• Garba is a “ritualistic and devotional dance” that is performed on the occasion of the festival of Navratri.
• The dance takes place around a perforated earthenware pot lit with an oil lamp or an image of the mother goddess Amba. 
• The dancers wearing colorful dresses move around the center in a counterclockwise circle. 
• The dance begins with slow circular movements to let the tempo slowly build up to a frenzied whirling. 

Significance of Garba:

• Inclusive Participation: The practitioners and bearers of Garba are broad and inclusive, from the dancers to the musicians, social groups, craftspeople, and religious figures involved in the festivities and preparations
• Social Equality Through Garba: Garba fosters social equality by diluting socio-economic, gender and religious structures. It continues to be inclusive of diverse and marginalized communities, thus strengthening social bonds

What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?

• Intangible cultural heritage is the practices, expressions, knowledge, and skills that communities, groups, and sometimes individuals recognise as part of their cultural heritage. 
• Broad Classification of intangible cultural heritage:
  • Oral traditions and expressionsPerforming arts Social practices, rituals and festive events Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe 
  • Traditional craftsmanship
• Criteria for an intangible cultural heritage:
  • The entity must be:
    • recognized by communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals as part of their cultural heritage;
    • transmitted from generation to generation;.
    • provide a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.

• Sangeet Natak Akademi is the nodal organization that files nominations of intangible cultural entities from India, for UNESCO

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India here.

What are the Government Initiatives to Promote Intangible Cultural Heritage in India?

• Scheme for Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage and Diverse Cultural Traditions of India: 
  • It aims to professionally enhance awareness and interest in the safeguarding, promotion, and propagation of Intangible Cultural Heritage.

News Source: Hindustan Times

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Context:  This article is based on the news “Stormy Monday in Chennai: Why are our cities so flood-prone?” which was published in the Live Mint. Cyclone Michaung has caused extensive floods causing severe damage to infrastructure and disruptions of livelihoods. 

Cyclone Michaung Highlights: Lives Lost, Cities Flooded

• Impact on lives: In just 35 hours, the cyclone poured over 43 cm of rain, causing severe flooding in Chennai.
• The cyclone led to eight deaths, and approximately 18,729 people including 6,000 within Chennai city limits, were moved to relief camps.
• Transport disruption: The Chennai airport built on the flood lanes of the Adyar River had to suspend operations affecting nearly 300 flights and stranding over 1,500 passengers. 
  • Southern Railway had to cancel several long-haul trains.
• Halt in communication services: It severely disrupted telecommunications in Chennai, halting essential communication networks including phone services, cell phone networks, and the internet. 
• Economic Impact: The automotive and electronics hub of Sriperumbudur and Oragadam was forced to halt operations for two days.
  • Economic activity was completely suspended in Chennai for two days due to closed airports, canceled trains, and flooded roads. 

Also Read: Flash Floods

What are the causes behind the floods in Chennai?

• Lack of scientific planning: The city’s Master Plan and the Disaster Management Plan do not address the issue of urban flooding in a scientific manner. 
  • Chennai couldn’t evacuate the water in many parts of the city because of the poor quality of construction and the heavy rainfall.
  • The rampant encroachment and choking of water bodies, particularly in the southern outskirts.
  • Several farming and fishing towns and hamlets have been encroached by the city throughout its expansion leading to several environmental and ecological issues.
  • Stormwater drains were built in the city to prevent urban flooding but it has been discovered that the construction of the drains was flawed. 
• Topography: It is a very low-lying area and is more or less like a basin from which water cannot escape easily.
  • Over the years, the expansion of the city with the construction of buildings in low-lying areas, led to stagnation of water as witnessed during the recent floods.
• Neglect of water recharge structures: The city’s recharge structures, such as ponds, lakes, tanks, and other wetlands, have been neglected, and the water’s natural flow has been altered.
• Decreasing marshland/wetland: The Marshland and wetlands of Chennai which act as natural buffers against flood water have become sites for waste disposal, housing, and commercial and industrial purposes. 
  • The rampant dumping of solid waste into the wetlands resulted in the leaching of effluents into the groundwater, causing significant pollution. 
  • The Ex-6,000-hectare area of Pallikaranai marshland, which acted as a floodwater drain, has shrunk to only 700 hectares.

What is Urban Flooding?

• Urban Flooding can be defined as ‘the submergence of usually dry areas by a large amount of water that comes from sudden excessive rainfall, an overflowing river or lake, melting snow or an exceptionally high tide’. 
• In other words, the flooding of land or property in a built environment, especially in densely populated cities where rainfall exceeds drainage systems’ capacity, is known as urban flooding.
  • As per the data from the government, over 17,000 people died due to floods and heavy rains in India between 2012 and 2021. 

What are the reasons behind urban flooding in India?

• Climate Change: Global Climate Change is resulting in changed weather patterns and increased  intensity rainfall events occurring in shorter periods.
  • For Example: Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.
• Urban Heat Island Effect: According to the NDMA, the urban heat island effect has increased rainfall over urban areas.
  • The hot air pushes the clouds carrying rain higher as they cross the urban heat island.
  • Heat islands are urbanized areas that experience higher temperatures than outlying areas.

• Encroachment in Low Lying Areas: The original built-up area of Indian cities has expanded and new developments are taking place in low-lying areas of Indian cities and towns due to rising land prices and less availability of land in the cities.
  • Most of the time, these developments take place on encroachments over lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds. 
  • These encroachments have occurred without widening the natural drains. Thus, flooding occurs as the capacity of the natural drains is decreased.
• Sea Level Rise:  Cities and towns that are near rivers, the ocean, interior cities, dams, and steep terrain are severely impacted due to sea level rise. 
  • For Example: Satellite observations have revealed that the rate of sea level rise is increasing and it rose by 0.11 inches from 2021 to 2022
• Faulty Drainage System: The urban areas lack adequate drainage infrastructure capable of handling heavy rainfall events.
  • Poor planning and impermeable surfaces, such as buildings and highways, do not let water penetrate the ground and overburden the inadequate drainage systems. 
  • The issue is exacerbated by concretizing the drains and preventing the water from seeping into the ground. 
• Urbanization: Rapid urbanization, both planned and unplanned, is responsible for flooding. 
  • Grey infrastructure which includes the flyovers, widening of roads, and urban settlements, contributes towards urban flooding in waterlogged areas.

• • The recent floods in Gurugram and Bengaluru are examples of such planning failures. 
  • Construction of Highways Traversing Water Bodies Feeding Rivers and Streams: For example, the ‘Kisan Path’ in Lucknow-circular road has affected the Kukrail River and has blocked the drainage near the origin of the river.
• Improper Waste Disposal Practices Also Contribute To Flooding: Illegal development and encroachment on water bodies, urban green spaces, and small woods have been observed in many cities. 
  • This lowers the amount of water that can be stored and messes with the river’s natural flow, which increases floods after heavy rains. 
  • Velachery Lake in Tamil Nadu has disappeared due to sewage discharge.

What are the impacts of urban flooding?

• Tangible losses: The losses that can be measured physically and can be assigned an economic value. These losses can be direct or indirect.
  • Direct: Structural damage to buildings, property damage, damage to infrastructure
  • Indirect: Economic losses, Traffic disruption, and emergency costs.
• Intangible losses: Intangible losses include loss of life, secondary health effects, and infections or damages to the environment which are difficult to assess in monetary terms since they are not traded.
  • Direct: Casualties, Health effects, ecological losses
  • Indirect: Post-flood recovery process, mental damage to the people 

Way forward for the urban flooding

• Adopting Sponge Cities Model: It is a model based on the monsoon climate and 2,000-5,000 years of experience and knowledge of adaptation.
• Climate Atlas: Every town and city must prepare its climate plan of action and a climate atlas with active participation of the people before a development plan.
  • The vulnerable points must be identified, water contouring must be done, and the damage to water bodies or water channels must be checked. 
  • Capacity building must be done to adapt to flooding and other climate disasters. Sustainable Urban Planning: Cities need to embrace sustainable planning practices that consider the natural topography and hydrology of the region.
  • Green spaces that can absorb excess water must be integrated into the plan. 
  • Flood-resilient infrastructure must be built that includes minimum engagement with the water contours. 

• Improved Drainage Systems: Improved water management methods by enhancing waste collection and segregation must be practiced. 
  • A protocol for clearing the drains during summer months must be followed. 
• Utilizing Geospatial Technology: Satellite data can help to digitize informal settlements and identify levels of vulnerability for flood protection strategies. geospatial technology should be used for flood vulnerability mapping. 
  • Further, natural water bodies should be strictly designed and maintained to ensure the free flow of excess water.
  • Rainwater Harvesting:  This should be included in all infrastructure constructions to ensure better water management. 
  • Along the sides of roads, bioswales should be constructed so that rainwater can percolate into the ground and flow toward them.
  • Bioswales are landscape features that collect polluted stormwater runoff, soak it into the ground, and filter out pollution. 

• • Bioswales are similar to rain gardens but are designed to capture much more runoff coming from larger areas of impervious surfaces like streets and parking lots.
• Development of Blue-green Infrastructure:  The term “Blue-green Infrastructure” refers to a network that uses infrastructure, ecological restoration, and urban design to connect people with nature to solve urban and climate problems. 
  • Blue denotes tanks and water bodies, while green denotes parks, gardens, and trees.

Conclusion:

The occurrence of urban flooding is exemplified by the recent challenges faced by Chennai City after Cyclone Michaung. We need better plans for cities, stronger buildings, and good ideas from around the world to avoid these disasters and keep people safe.

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Context: This article is based on the news “Mining for critical minerals: what is the auction process, and why is it important?” which was published in the Indian Express. India has recently launched the first tranche of auctions for critical and strategic minerals worth around ₹45,000 crore. 

Government Initiates Auction Process for Critical Minerals

• The bidding process began after the government declared 30 minerals as “critical”, and amended the Mines and Minerals (Development And Regulation) Act to allow commercial mining of lithium and a few other minerals. 
• The bid for each block will be awarded on the highest percentage of mineral dispatch value quoted by the bidder. 
• After the ongoing auction is over, the process of auctioning a second tranche of critical mineral blocks is expected to begin.
  • It is currently unclear if this second tranche includes new lithium reserves in Rajasthan and Jharkhand. 

What are the critical minerals?

• Critical Minerals: These are minerals that are essential for clean energy, economic development, and national security. 
  • These are essential for the advancement of many sectors, including high-tech electronics, telecommunications, transport, and defense.
• Identified Critical Minerals: The Expert Committee under the Ministry of Mines has identified a set of 30 critical minerals for India.
  • These are Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium, and Cadmium.
• Lithium Reserves: India’s first official lithium was found in the Salal Haimna block of Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir, which has been auctioned. 
  • Katghora block in Chhattisgarh is also on auction, which consists of lithium and rare earth elements (REE). 

How is the auction process conducted for critical minerals in India?

• Minerals in Auction: Around 20 mineral blocks covering lithium and REE (rare earth elements), nickel, copper, chromium, phosphorite, potash, glauconite, graphite, manganese, and molybdenum were put under the auction.
• Location: The blocks are located across 8 States, namely Odisha, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Jammu & Kashmir.
• Duration: The entire auction process will be completed within 103 days from the date of launch of the auction. Further, the Government is committed to bringing more critical mineral blocks to auction in a phased manner.
• Types of Agreement: Of the 20 blocks, 16 are Composite Licences (CL) blocks, while 4 are Mining Leases (ML).
  • Mining Lease: It allows mining for specified minerals and conducts other activities associated with mining or promoting the activity of mining. Under ML, once the license is granted, the licensee can begin mining operations after obtaining the requisite clearances.
  • Composite Licence: It means the prospecting licence-cum-mining lease which is a two-stage concession granted to undertake prospecting operations followed by mining operations in a seamless manner. CL allows the licensee to conduct further geological exploration of the area to ascertain evidence of mineral contents.
• Exploration Period Under CL: The Licensee can make an application to the relevant state government to convert their CL to an ML to begin mining operations pending requisite clearances. 
  • The licensee has 3-5 years to complete the prescribed level of exploration, failing which the licence will be withdrawn.
• Clearances Required: Out of the total concession area of 7,197 hectares (for all 20 blocks), 17% of the area is forest land with status. 
  • Once granted a licence, the licensee will have to obtain 15 approvals and clearances  including forest clearance, environmental clearance, Gram Sabha consent, etc. before beginning operations. 

What is the Significance of Critical Mineral Mining for India?

• Boost Atma Nirbhar Bharat: Critical minerals are fundamental to the manufacturing sector, and their availability is crucial for economic growth with industries heavily relying on these minerals for the production of components and technologies. Once the mining is operational, it will help to cut down imports of these minerals and ensure to fulfillment of the vision of Aatmanirbhar Bharat and further development of strategic sectors. 
• Ensuring Critical Mineral Security: As India and the world at large are focusing on expanding renewable energy capacity, the demand for certain critical minerals is expected to rise. 
  • Further, India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited to ensure the mineral security of the nation.
• Reducing Dependency on Imports: India is 100% reliant on imports for its lithium and nickel demand and around 93% for copper. Developing domestic mining capabilities can help reduce this dependency, making the country more self-reliant and resilient to global market fluctuations. 
  • In August 2023, India imported 2,145 tonnes of lithium carbonate and lithium oxide at a total cost of Rs 732 crore.
  • India also imported 32,000 tonnes of unwrought nickel for Rs 6,549 crore, and 1.2 million tonnes of copper ore for Rs 27,374 crore, in 2022-23.
• National Security: Critical minerals are essential for the defense industry, contributing to the production of advanced weaponry, communication systems, and other strategic technologies. 
  • Ensuring a domestic supply of these minerals is vital, as dependence on foreign sources may pose risks during times of geopolitical uncertainties.
• Job Creation and Local Development: The mining and processing of critical minerals can contribute to Employment Generation, particularly in regions where these minerals are available, further providing opportunities for infrastructure development.
• Environmental Sustainability:
  • Critical minerals are crucial for the transition to a clean energy. They help in reducing the reliance on fossil fuels and consequently greenhouse gas emissions.
  • 500GW of renewable energy capacity target by 2030 necessitates these minerals.
  • Green technologies like solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and electric vehicles rely heavily on critical minerals.
• International Cooperation: International cooperation is crucial for diversifying import sources and securing supply chains.
  • India’s membership in the Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) in June 2023 (MSP) strengthens its position and provides a platform to advocate for developing countries. Joining them is a strategic move.

What are the challenges India faces in assuring resilient critical minerals supply chains?

Global Challenges:

• China: The dominant player in critical mineral supply chains faces disruptions due to COVID-19 lockdowns, potentially impacting extraction, processing, and exports.
• Russia-Ukraine War: Russia is one of the significant producers of nickel, palladium, titanium sponge metal, and the rare earth element scandium. Ukraine is one of the major producers of titanium.
  •  Disruptions in production and supply of critical minerals like nickel, palladium, titanium, and rare earth elements due to the war.
• Geopolitical Shifts: A strategic partnership between China and Russia could further affect critical mineral supply chains, especially as developed countries form rival alliances.
  • For example: the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) and G7’s Sustainable Critical Minerals Alliance.
• Increased Demand: Transition to renewable energy and electric vehicles requires more minerals like copper, lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements, exceeding current global production.

Domestic Challenges:

• Limited Domestic Reserves: India lacks sufficient reserves of many critical minerals, necessitating reliance on imports.
  • However, India does not have in significant amounts, the reserves of nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, rare earth elements, neodymium, and indium, and the country’s requirement of copper and silver are higher than its current reserves.
• High Demand: India’s growing economy and ambitious green energy goals place high demands on critical mineral resources.

Way Forward: 

• Increasing Mineral Exploration: Conducting thorough assessments to identify and quantify critical mineral deposits across the country, investing in advanced geological surveys and exploration of technologies to locate potential reserves is crucial.
  • For instance, as per the Geographical Survey of India’s (GSI) field season 2023-24 report, lithium exploration projects are underway in at least three states, including Korba district in Chhattisgarh, South Garo Hills and East Garo Hills in Meghalaya, and Jammu, Ramban, Resai, Rajouri and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir. 
• Investment Promotion: Create a conducive investment environment by offering incentives, tax breaks, and streamlined regulatory processes to attract domestic and foreign investment in critical mineral mining projects. 
  • Further, facilitate public-private partnerships to share the risks and rewards of critical mineral exploration and production.
  • The government specified new royalty rates for critical minerals by matching global benchmarks to attract investment in mining.
• Environmental and Social Responsibility: Minimize the ecological impact of mining activities while implementing community engagement programs to address the concerns of local communities and ensure that the benefits of mining are shared equitably.
• Technology Adoption: Embrace and invest in advanced technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence, and robotics to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance safety in mining operations.
• National Strategy:
  • Develop a comprehensive national strategy for critical minerals, aiming for self-reliance in these resources.
  • Address environmental concerns and protect affected communities through sustainable mining practices.
• International Cooperation:  India must actively engage in bilateral and plurilateral arrangements for building assured and resilient critical mineral supply chains. 
  • Collaboration with countries like Australia and Canada can leverage their advanced exploration technologies and expertise, leading to faster and more efficient resource discovery.

Conclusion:

The auction process for critical minerals in India, marked by the Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2023, is a crucial step towards reducing import dependency.

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