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Introduction

Affirmative action through reservations was incorporated in the Constitution to remedy historical discrimination and structural exclusion faced by Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). Constitutional provisions such as Articles 15(4), 16(4) and 46 aim to ensure their adequate representation in education and public employment. However, several structural and institutional challenges continue to limit the effective realization of these goals.

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Challenges in ensuring representation in higher education

• Access Gap: Socio-economic disadvantages limit the ability of marginalised students to reach higher education institutions.
  Eg: Gross Enrolment Ratio of ST students remains lower than the national GER in AISHE reports.
• Preparatory Inequality: Unequal school education and coaching access reduce competitiveness in entrance examinations.
  Eg: Lower representation of SC/ST candidates in IIT-JEE advanced ranks despite reserved seats.
• Institutional Dropouts: Academic pressures and lack of support systems lead to higher dropout rates.
  Eg: Concerns raised after the Rohith Vemula case at the University of Hyderabad (2016) highlighted institutional exclusion.
• Limited Faculty Representation: Marginalised communities remain underrepresented among university faculty.
  Eg: Parliamentary discussions noting low SC/ST faculty presence in central universities.
• Social Discrimination: Subtle caste discrimination and exclusionary campus cultures affect participation and retention.
  Eg: Reports of segregated hostel interactions and discrimination complaints in higher education campuses.
  

Challenges in representation within public institutions

• Implementation Gaps: Reserved vacancies are often left unfilled due to administrative delays or recruitment practices.
  Eg: Parliamentary committee observations on vacant reserved posts in central government departments.
• Promotion Barriers: Reservation in promotions remains legally and administratively contested.
  Eg: Supreme Court rulings in M. Nagaraj (2006) and Jarnail Singh (2018) requiring data to justify promotion quotas.
• Creamy Layer Debate: Determining eligibility within OBC categories creates policy complexity.
  Eg: Periodic revision of OBC creamy layer income limit by the central government.
• Institutional Resistance: Bureaucratic attitudes and administrative discretion sometimes dilute reservation implementation.
  Eg: Delays in applying reservation rosters in public sector recruitment processes.
• Regional Disparities: Implementation varies widely across states and institutions.
  Eg: Differences in reservation policies between central institutions and state universities.
  

Conclusion

While affirmative action policies remain essential instruments for achieving social justice, persistent structural barriers continue to limit their effectiveness. Strengthening implementation mechanisms, improving educational access, and addressing institutional discrimination are crucial for ensuring meaningful representation of marginalised communities in India’s higher education and public institutions.

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