Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Definition, Applications, Implications

Nanoscience: Exploring Wonders in the Microscopic World

• Nanoscience involves the examination of structures and materials at an extremely small scale, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. 
• Nanoscience focuses on understanding the distinctive and intriguing properties exhibited by materials at the nanoscale.

Nanotechnology: Unleashing Potential through Atomic Precision

• Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matters at atomic level in order to produce novel materials and devices with new extraordinary properties.
• Basic concept of nanotechnology: Behavior of matters changes significantly when the surface area to volume ratio increases dramatically.
• Properties of materials are size dependent i.e. melting point, electrical conductivity, magnetic and chemical properties vary at nano scale range and follow “the laws of quantum physics”.
• Example of Nanotechnology: Some Polymers being insulators in the bulk form, they act like semiconductor in nanoscale.

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Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: CARBON-BASED NANOMATERIALS

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Applications

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Implications

 GREY GOO: A hypothetical situation where self-replicating nano robots go out of control, and consume all matter on the earth.

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Nanotechnology: Nanotech Fibre

• It is a new carbon nanotube (CNT) based fiber that looks and acts like textile thread but is able to conduct heat and electricity.
• Behaves like both metal wires and strong carbon fibers.
• Used in the field of aerospace, automotive, medical and smart-clothing markets.

Nanotechnology: Smart Matter/ Smart Dust

• Is the use of tiny wireless sensors and transponders to communicate the information they sense.
• Made by Hitachi, have GPS capabilities, they can be sprayed on us and absorbed or taken in foods, drinks and even injected to monitor health and activities.

Nanotechnology: Semiconductors

• These are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).
• Its resistance falls with rise in temperature, opposite to metals.
• Semiconductors act like an insulator at Zero Kelvin.
• g.: pure metals such as silicon or germanium or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.

Nanotechnology: Plasmonic Semiconductor Nanomaterials

• PSN are metal-like materials with free electrons on the surface that oscillate collectively when hit by light.
• It uses solar light to increase the photocatalytic efficiency to degrade pollutants as well as generate renewable hydrogen.
• PSN can easily absorb toxic ions like arsenic and fluoride, helping in removing water contamination.

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR SCIENCE

• An Atom is made up of a Nucleus (Protons + Neutrons) and Electrons revolving around the nucleus.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of Protons.
• Atomic mass number (A) = number of Protons + Neutrons.
• Isotopes: an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom. Ex: Hydrogen has 3 types of isotopes, Protium (light water), Deuterium (heavy water) & Tritium and Uranium-238, Uranium-235
• Nuclear Force: Acts between protons and neutrons of atoms and binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together. So, nuclear force is strongest in nuclei and weak between electrons and nuclei.

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Nanotechnology: RADIOACTIVITY

• Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
• It was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896.
• A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive in nature.
• Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay, beta decay, & gamma decay, all of which involve emitting one or more particles or photons.
• Half-life refers to the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any atom to undergo radioactive decay.

Nanotechnology: TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

1. Nuclear Fission
2. Nuclear Fusion reactions.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR REACTOR

• A nuclear reactor is a reactor where the nuclear chain reactions occur that produces energy.
• These are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation & in nuclear marine propulsion.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR ENERGY

• Nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR FUEL

• Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
• U-233, U-235 & Pu-239 are fissile in nature. They exhibit nuclear fission when targeted with a neutron.
• U-238 & Th-232 are fertile in nature, When targeted with neutrons instead of breaking down, they change into new elements. (U238àPu239, Th232àU233).

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Nanotechnology: URANIUM ENRICHMENT

• The Natural Composition of Uranium extracted from earth is that 99.3% is U-238, which is fertile and remaining is U-235, which is fissile.
• When the percentage of U-235 is increased in mixture i.e., described as Uranium enrichment.
• For this purpose, most commonly used technology is of
• On the basis of enrichment, two types of Uranium: 1) Low Enriched uranium (LEU), 2) High enriched Uranium (HEU).
• LEU is used for peaceful purposes like fuel in nuclear reactors (Kudankulam (1.5%) & Jaitapur (5%) required enriched Uranium.
• HEU is weapon grade uranium used for conducting nuclear tests and nuclear weapons.

U-233 (not found naturally) is produced in Thermal breeder reactors where Thorium-232 absorbs a neutron to form U-233 which is fissile.

Nanotechnology: Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT)

• Proposed International agreement that would prohibit the production of two main components of nuclear weapons: highly enriched uranium (HEU) and Plutonium.
• FMCT would provide new restrictions for the five recognized nuclear weapon states (US, Russia, UK, France, China) and the four states that are not NPT members (Israel, India, Pakistan, & North Korea).

Nanotechnology: MODERATORS 

• Moderators are generally atoms with lighter nuclei and do not absorb neutrons.
• Hence, these are used in nuclear reactors to slow down the neutron in a controlled chain reaction.
• Generally Ordinary Water, Heavy Water and Graphite rods are used as moderators.

Nanotechnology: CONTROL RODS

• They are used in nuclear reactors to control the fission rate of uranium or plutonium.
• Control rods are made of neutron poisons or therefore absorb neutrons This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission & reduces the reactor’s power output.
• Control rods absorb neutrons but do not release energy in the process.
• Their compositions include chemical elements such as Boron, Cadmium, Silver, or Indium, that are capable of absorbing many neutrons without themselves fissioning.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR REACTOR & ITS TYPES

• The commercial power plants have several types of design. They vary depending on the type of heat transfer fluid that is used and other design elements.
• Fusion reactors: increasingly seen as the future of energy security due to following factors:

1. Abundance of fuel (Hydrogen)
2. Clean source of energy as it involves no release of CO2
3. Elimination of risk from nuclear waste.

• But these Fusion reactors are still in the experimental stage due to their complexity in its operational handling.
• Different types of fission reactors are listed in the table below.

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Why Does India Prefer Fast Breeder Reactors?

• FBRs are designed to produce more fissile material (plutonium) than they consume (Thorium Th-232).
• Enrichment and Reprocessing technology (ENR) is not easy and costly, and FBRs Effectively utilizes the natural uranium (nearly 80%).
• Consuming the depleted fuel discharged from thermal reactors, FBRs are important from Waste management and environmental considerations.
• FBR technology can use Thorium (as fertile material) which gets converted to U-233, a fissile isotope. This holds great promise as India has one of the world’s largest deposits of Thorium (450,000 tons) in the form of sand dunes in Kerala and Chattarpur coast of Orissa.

 Nanotechnology: INDIA’S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR PROGRAM

• India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power generation and the Atomic Energy Act was framed and implemented with the set objectives of using two naturally occurring elements Uranium & Thorium having good potential to be utilized as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.
• The 3-stage nuclear programme is developed with the aim of utilizing the vast Thorium reserves in India (about 25% of the world) as India is a Uranium scarce country.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR POWER IN INDIA

• Currently India has 22 nuclear reactors operating in plants generating about 6780 MW of power.
• Nuclear power contributes to 8% of the total energy basket of India.
• India’s nuclear energy target is set at 63000 MW of power by 2032.

Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REGULATION IN INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY (DoAE)

• It is apex body under the direct charge of the Prime Minister working toward development & regulation of nuclear technology in India.
• Atomic Energy Commission is the governing body of

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 ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD (AERB):

• The Board was constituted on 15 November 1983.
• AERB is the regulatory authority responsible for safe operations of nuclear reactors as well as regulation at all other nuclear facilities in India.
• It derives its powers from Atomic Energy Act, 1962 & the Environmental (Protection) Act,

 Nanotechnology: NUCLEAR WEAPON TESTS OF INDIA

• Smiling Buddha (Pokhran I) was a single nuclear test conducted in 1974. (Mrs. Indira Gandhi period)
• Shakti (Pokhran II) was a group of 2 nuclear tests conducted in 1998 (Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee period)

Nanotechnology: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement

• Also known as the 123 Agreement signed between the United States & India in 2008
• Under this agreement, India agreed to separate its Civil & Military nuclear facilities and to place all its civil nuclear facilities under IAEA
• With this India was also granted the waiver from the NSG protocols to get Nuclear supply & technologies.

Nanotechnology: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Nanotechnology: IMPORTANT NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATIES

PARTIAL TEST BAN TREATY (PTBT)

• PTBT is the abbreviated name of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, which prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground.
• The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, & the United States in Moscow on 5 August 1963.
• Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

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Nanotechnology: NON-PROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS TREATY (NPT), 1968

• NPT is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons & weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament.
• Signed by 191 countries, the treaty restricts nuclear non-weapon states (countries which had no nuclear weapon till1968) from developing or acquiring nuclear weapons.
• 5 states recognized as nuclear-weapon states include the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China.
• Four UN member states that have never joined the NPT are: India, Israel, Pakistan & South Sudan.
• North Korea had signed the NPT in 1985 but in 1993 it unilaterally withdrew from NPT.

Note:

• Though India is not a part of NPT, it has signed the Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement IAEA in 2009.
• Accordingly, India has kept 20 of its 22 civilian nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards

Nanotechnology: COMPREHENSIVE TEST BAN TREATY (CTBT)

• CTBT was negotiated at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva and adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1996.
• The Treaty intends to ban all nuclear explosions- everywhere, by everyone.
• So far it has been signed by 184 states, of which 168 have ratified the treaty. However, the treaty has not come into force

Note:

• China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, &USA have signed but not ratified the NPT.
• India, Pakistan and North Korea haven’t signed the NPT.

Nanotechnology: EXPORT CONTROL REGIMES

The NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP (NSG)

• NSG is a multilateral export control regime & a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment & technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.
• The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974.
• It is a 48-member export-control regime that regulates export of nuclear technology and fuel.
• Nuclear non-weapon states who have signed NPT can have access to items listed in NPT.

Note:

• Though India is not a member of NSG, in 2008 India was granted a special waiver by NSG for supply of nuclear fuel and technology to India.
• Thus, India became the first & only non-NPT signatory to have this privilege.

Nanotechnology: AUSTRALIA GROUP(AG)

• Was established in response to Chemical Weapon use in the Iran-Iraq war in 1984.
• There are around 43 members at present including India, USA.
• Objective: is to control exports of biological & chemical agents used as weapons.

Nanotechnology: MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL REGIME (MTCR)

• The MTCR is a multilateral export control regime. Established in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries.
• It is an informal political understanding among 35 member states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles & missile technology.
• Accordingly, weapons delivery systems carrying more than500 kg payload for over 300 km are restricted under MTCR.
• In 2018 India joined MTCR, which enabled India to:

1. 1. Increase the range of brahmos from 290 KM to 450 KM.
   2. Get access to predator drones from different countries

Nanotechnology: WASSENAAR ARRANGEMENT(WA)

• It is the successor to the Cold War-era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands.
• Objective: is to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods & technologies.
• Currently, it has 42 members including India, US, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Australia, Japan, Russia, South Africa etc.

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Nanotechnology: NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

Nanotechnology: ROOPPUR NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT (RNPP)

• This will be a 4 GWe nuclear power plant in Bangladesh on the banks of the river Padma, 87 miles (140 km) west of Dhaka.
• RNPP is the collaboration project between India, Russia & Bangladesh.
• The Hindustan Construction Company of India is being involved in the construction of “Non-critical” infrastructure.
• The Nuclear reactor & “Critical infrastructure” are being built by the Russian Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation.

USA to Set Up 6 Light Water Reactors in Kovvada, Andhra Pradesh 

• Under the agreement, the US Company Westinghouse Electric will sell Six AP-1000 nuclear reactors to India.
• NPCIL will be responsible for construction and operation of the plant.
• Note: Fuel used here is U-235 & ordinary water as coolant and moderator.

Nanotechnology: GLOBAL CENTER FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY PARTNERSHIP (GCNEP)

• GCNEP is the World’s first nuclear energy partnership center at Kheri Jasaur village of Haryana state in India.
• GCNEP will help in capacity building, in association with the interested countries & the IAEA, involving technology, human resource development, education & training and giving a momentum to R&D in enlisted areas.