The Working Class Movement in Colonial India: Struggles and Reforms

In India’s history, the fight for freedom from British rule is widely recognized. However, the contributions of working-class Indians, including laborers, factory workers, and miners, are often overlooked despite their critical role in the struggle for independence. From the late 1800s to the mid-1900s, these workers significantly shaped India’s journey toward freedom.

The working-class movement began with the onset of industrialization and the establishment of the factory system in India. The construction of railways, which employed thousands of laborers, marked the inception of India’s modern working class. Alongside the expansion of railways, industries such as coal, jute, and cotton thrived, employing a growing number of workers.

Foundation of Modern Industries (1850–1870) #

The foundation of modern industries in India was laid between 1850 and 1870, driven by Lord Dalhousie’s Railway Minute of 1853, which introduced machinery into India’s transportation system. This marked the rise of industrialization and the modern Indian working class.

Emergence of Key Industries #

• Railways:
  • Employed thousands of workers, creating one of the first significant labor forces in India.
• Coal, Cotton, and Jute:
  • The first cotton mill opened in Bombay in 1854.
  • The first jute mill was established in Calcutta in the same year.
  • Coal mining expanded rapidly, employing a growing number of workers.

Growth of the Workforce #

• Textile mills: Workforce grew from 74,000 in 1886 to 195,000 in 1905.
• Jute industry: Increased from 27,494 in 1879–80 to 154,962 in 1906.
• Coal mines: Employed 75,749 workers by 1904.

Challenges and Concerns of the Working Class #

Key Challenges #

• • Low Wages: Workers earned meager wages, barely enough to cover basic needs.
    • Limited access to essential goods and services perpetuated poverty.
  • Long Working Hours: Laborers worked for 12 or more hours daily, leading to physical and mental exhaustion.
  • Unsanitary Working Conditions: Factories lacked basic hygiene and safety measures.
    • Workers were exposed to health risks due to unsafe environments.
• Child Labor
  • Prevalence: Children as young as seven years worked under harsh conditions.
  • Impact: They were deprived of education and a proper childhood.
• Lack of Essential Amenities: Workers and their families lacked:
  • Clean housing
  • Education
  • Healthcare
  • These limitations reinforced poverty cycles.
• Exploitation by Dual Forces
  • Imperial forces and foreign industrialists exploited workers.
  • The Indian business class compounded these challenges.
  • Pervasive Capitalistic Exploitation: During wartime, profits surged, but wages remained stagnant, increasing the disparity between employers and workers.
  • Lack of Protective Legislation
  • The absence of labor protection laws exacerbated worker exploitation.
  • This spurred the growth of the labor movement, supported by the Indian National Congress and the Communist Party.

Notable Efforts Made by Famous Personalities for the Working Class #

Early Initiatives #

• Sasipada Banerjee (1870): Established a workingmen’s club and launched the newspaper “Bharat Shramjeevi”.
• Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee (1878): Attempted to pass a bill in the Bombay Legislative Council to improve labor conditions.
• Narain Meghajee Lokhande (1880): Founded the newspaper “Deenbandhu” and established the Bombay Mill and Millhands Association.
• Great Indian Peninsular Railways Strike (1899):
  • A significant strike supported by newspapers like Tilak’s “Kesari” and “Mahratta”.
• Other Contributions: Leaders like B.C. Pal and G.S. Aiyar advocated for better labor conditions.

Early Regulation of Labor Conditions #

Lancashire Textile Lobby #

• The call for regulating labor conditions in Indian factories originated from the Lancashire textile lobby in Britain.
• Concerns over cheap Indian labor led to demands for the appointment of a commission to investigate factory conditions.

First Factory Act (1881) #

• Key Provisions:
  • Prohibited employment of children under 7 years.
  • Limited working hours for children under 12 years.
  • Required fencing of dangerous machinery.

Major Factory Acts During British Rule #

Factory Act of 1881 #

• Regulation of Working Hours: Limited working hours for women and children to 11 hours daily.
• Age Restrictions: Prohibited employment of children under 7 years.
  • Minimum working age raised to 12 years.
• Safety Measures: Mandated fencing of machinery to prevent accidents.
• Rest Intervals: Women and children were entitled to 13-hour rest periods between shifts.
• Factory Inspections: Appointed government inspectors to ensure compliance.

Factory Act of 1891 #

• Standard Working Hours: Limited working hours for adults to 12 hours daily.
• Restrictions on Women and Children: Prohibited employment of children under 7 years.
  • Restricted working hours for women and children.
• Overtime Wages: Mandated overtime pay for work beyond stipulated hours.
• Safety Standards: Required factory owners to implement specific safety measures.
• Night Work Prohibition for Children: Prohibited children from working in factories at night.
• Factory Inspections: Introduced a system of inspections and record-keeping.

Conclusion: The Resilience of the Indian Working Class #

The working-class movement in colonial India was an integral part of the fight for independence. Laborers and workers, despite severe exploitation, stood resilient in their struggle for better wages, safer conditions, and labor rights. The enactment of Factory Acts marked the beginning of labor reforms, though significant challenges persisted. The collective efforts of the working class and their integration into the freedom struggle underline their crucial role in shaping India’s history.