Important Civil Uprisings in 18th Century India: Resistance Against British Colonial Rule

The British acquisition of power in India unfolded gradually, marked by incremental conquests and subsequent efforts to control the economy and society, sparking dissatisfaction and opposition. Indian resistance against British rule encompassed diverse societal groups—peasants, artisans, tribals, ruling classes, military personnel, and religious leaders—who joined forces to protect their interests. According to historian Bipan Chandra, resistance took three main forms: civil rebellions, tribal uprisings, and peasant movements. Military revolts by Indians in the Company’s forces added depth to this historical period.

Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)

Origin and Causes: It arose in Eastern India due to the devastating 1770 famine and the oppressive economic policies of the British. It was led by sanyasis, who were originally peasants, including those forcibly evicted from their land. 

• Local Allies and Armed Resistance: They were joined by dispossessed small zamindars, former soldiers, and rural poor. 
  • Together, they launched raids on Company factories and treasuries, engaging in armed conflicts with the Company’s forces. 
• Key figures and suppression: Warren Hastings eventually managed to quell the uprising after a prolonged struggle. This rebellion saw active participation from both Hindus and Muslims, earning it the nickname of the Fakir Rebellion. 
  • Key Leaders included Majnum Shah (or Majnu Shah), Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and Debi Chaudhurani. Debi Chaudhurani’s involvement highlights the significant role of women in early resistance against the British. 
• Cultural impact and legacy of revolt: The Sanyasi Revolt serves as the inspiration for Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s semi-historical novel “Anandamath,” while his novel “Devi Chaudhurani” emphasizes the importance of women in the struggle against an alien rule threatening traditional Indian values.

Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74)

Reason: It was sparked by changes in the land revenue system introduced by the English in 1772. Initially, there were harmonious relations between about 3,000 zamindars and talukdars and their ryots in Midnapore. 

• However, the introduction of the new revenue system disrupted this harmony. 
• Zamindar-ryot harmony: British governor Vansittart noted that the zamindars of Midnapore often sided with the ryots in conflicts with English revenue collectors. 
• Result: In regions like Dhalbhum, Manbhum, Raipur, Panchet, Jhatibuni, Karnagarh, and Bagri, located in the extensive Jungle Mahals of west and north-west Midnapore, zamindars were eventually dispossessed of their zamindaries by the 1800s. 
• Leadership: Notable leaders in these uprisings included Damodar Singh and Jagannath Dhal.

Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99)

Challenge to Ahom Authority by the Moamarias: The Revolt posed a significant challenge to the authority of the Ahom kings in Assam. 

• The Moamarias, belonging to the low-caste peasant community, followed the teachings of Aniruddhadeva (1553-1624). 
• Rise of Low-Caste Movements and Ahom Dynasty’s Weakening: Their emergence mirrored the rise of other low-caste groups in northern India. 
• • Their uprisings weakened the Ahom dynasty, creating an opportunity for external forces to exploit the region. 
  • Descendants of Ahom rulers were proving incapable of meeting the challenges offered to their supremacy by several quarters. 
• The Moamaria Uprising of 1769 and Its Impact: The most striking one was an uprising of the Moamarias in 1769 during the rule of King Laksmi Singh. 
  • The Maomaria again revolted during the rule of King Gaurinath Singh (1780-1795), who could not face them and he had to leave his capital, Rangpur (in upper Assam). 
  • Gaurinath Singh took shelter in Gauhati, where too, his position was not safe, because of the outbreak of disturbances in Darrang. 
• Reason: King Gaurinath Singh interfered in the matter of succession in Darrang. He dismissed a claim of the Koch Prince Krishnanarayan, as the Raja of Darrang, and got placed Bishnunarayan there. 
  • Krishnanarayan, so being disgruntled, raised a revolt aided by his band of burkandazes (former soldiers of Muslim armies and zamindars) against the Ahom king and started finding ways to capture the power in Darrang.
• Result: The Moamarias established Bhatiapar as their headquarters, and the regions most affected were Rangpur (now in Bangladesh) and Jorhat. 
  • Ahom kingdom ultimately survived the rebellion, its weakened state made it vulnerable to a Burmese invasion, ultimately leading to its subjugation under British rule.

Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich (1781)

Revenue Policies and Uprisings under Warren Hastings: Uprisings were a response to Warren Hastings’ plan to generate revenue for the expenses incurred in wars against the Marathas and Mysore. 

• Hastings employed English officers as izaradars (revenue farmers) in Awadh, with Major Alexander Hannay overseeing Gorakhpur and Bahraich. 
• Hannay secured an izara amounting to 22 lakh rupees for one year. 
• This initiative was a covert experiment by the Company to gauge the practical accessibility of surplus funds.
• Reason: Hannay’s oppressive revenue demands caused widespread panic in the previously prosperous region under the Nawab’s rule. 
• • In 1781, enraged zamindars and cultivators rose against these exactions. 
• Course and Result: Within weeks, Hannay’s subordinates were either killed or besieged by guerrilla forces aligned with the Zamindars. 
  • Although the rebellion was eventually quelled, Hannay was dismissed, and his izara was forcibly revoked.

Revolt of the Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)

Alliance and Betrayal: The Treaty of 1758 in Vizianagaram: It stemmed from a breach of trust by the East India Company. In 1758, a treaty was forged between the English and Ananda Gajapatiraju, the ruler of Vizianagaram, to jointly expel the French from the Northern Circars, which they accomplished. 

• However, the English, in a pattern seen throughout their Indian dealings, reneged on their treaty commitments.
• Ananda Raju passed away before he could seriously confront the English. 
• Reason: The East India Company then demanded a tribute of three lakh rupees from Vizayaramaraju, the Raja of Vizianagaram, and insisted on the disbandment of his troops, despite there being no outstanding dues to the Company. 
• • This incensed the raja, who, supported by his subjects, to lead a revolt. 
• Course and Result: The English captured the raja in 1793 and ordered him into exile with a pension. The Raja staunchly refused. In a tragic turn of events, the Raja met his end in Battle at Padmanabham in modern Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in 1794. 
  • Consequently, Vizianagaram fell under the dominion of the East India Company. Eventually, the Company extended an offer of the estate to the deceased Raja’s son and reduced the demands for presents.

The Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800)

Reason: It occurred in the aftermath of the English conquest of Mysore in 1799. Dhundia Wagh, a local Maratha leader who had converted to Islam under Tipu Sultan, was released from jail with the fall of Seringapatam. 

• He swiftly assembled a force comprising anti-British elements and established a small territory for himself.
• Course and Consequence: Following a defeat by the English in August 1799, Dhundia sought refuge in the Maratha region. From there, he encouraged disillusioned princes to oppose the English and assumed a leadership role himself. 
• • In September 1800, he met his end while fighting against British forces led by Wellesley. 
  • Despite his ultimate failure, Dhundia became a revered figure among the masses.

Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797; 1800-05)

Background: Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, also known as the ‘Lion of Kerala,’ led the resistance against various forces in the Malabar region. He not only fought against Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan but also opposed the British from 1793 to 1805. 

• The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) allowed the English to assert control over Kottayam, despite an earlier agreement recognizing its independence in 1790. 
• Cause and Course: The English appointed Vira Varma, Pazhassi Raja’s uncle, as the ruler of Kottayam. However, Vira Varma imposed high taxes on peasants to meet the Company’s revenue targets, triggering a mass rebellion led by Pazhassi Raja in 1793. 
• • Employing guerrilla warfare tactics, Pazhassi Raja negotiated a peace treaty in 1797.
  • A dispute over Wayanad reignited hostilities in 1800, prompting Pazhassi Raja to mobilize a formidable force of Nairs, supplemented by Mappilas and Pathans (former soldiers of Tipu who became unemployed after his death). 
  • In November 1805, the Lion of Kerala met his end in a gunfight at Mavila Todu, near the present-day border of Kerala and Karnataka.

Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)

Wazir Ali Khan’s Rise and the Massacre of Benares: In 1799, Wazir Ali Khan, the fourth Nawab of Awadh, initially ascended the throne with British support. 

• However, his relations with the British soured, leading to his replacement by his uncle, Saadat Ali Khan II. 
• Wazir Ali Khan was granted a pension in Benares. In January 1799, he committed a notorious act by killing British resident George Frederik Cherry, who had invited him to lunch. 
• This incident, known as the Massacre of Benares, saw Wazir Ali’s guards also killing two other Europeans and attacking the Magistrate of Benares.
• Wazir Ali’s Defeat and Flight to Butwal: Wazir Ali managed to muster an army of several thousand men, but they were defeated by General Erskine. 
  • Fleeing to Butwal, Wazir Ali sought asylum from the ruler of Jaipur. 
• Extradition and Imprisonment of Wazir Ali Khan: At the request of Arthur Wellesley, the Raja of Jaipur extradited Wazir Ali on the condition that he would not be executed or put in fetters. Wazir Ali surrendered in December 1799 and was confined in Fort William, Calcutta.

Conclusion

The civil uprisings of the 18th century in India reflect the growing resistance against British colonial rule and socio-economic injustices. From the Sanyasi Revolt’s defiance against economic oppression to the localized uprisings in Midnapore and beyond, these movements reveal a complex scenario of rebellion. Leaders such as Debi Chaudhurani and Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja not only resisted but also embodied the diverse resistance against foreign dominance. Their legacies underscore the enduring struggle for justice and autonomy, shaping the narrative of Indian resistance.

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