Emergence of Regional Powers in 18th Century India

Marathas aimed to reclaim Maharashtra, but their goals expanded to seek the Mughal emperor’s approval for collecting sardeshmukhi and Chauth across India. By 1740, their influence extended to regions like Gujarat, Malwa, and Bundelkhand. The Rajput resistance and the Marathas’ rising aspirations and strength significantly undermined the Mughal empire.

Rise of Awadh 

Saadat Khan, commonly referred to as Burhan-ul-Mulk established the autonomous territory of Oudh in 1722. 

• Originating from the Sayyids of Nishapur, Saadat Khan, a Shia, was made Faujdar of Biyana in 1720. His involvement against the Sayyid brothers earned him the emperor’s favor. 
• Consequently, he received a mansab, initially of 5,000 which later increased to 7,000, along with the title Burhan-ul-Mulk. Between 1720 and 1722, he governed Agra via his deputy, Nilkanth Nagar. 

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• However, after a decline in his court standing, he was relocated as the Governor of Oudh. This shift paved the way for Saadat Khan to transform Oudh into a sovereign Muslim realm. 
• Stand and Tragic Demise: By 1739, he was summoned to Delhi to counter Nadir Shah. Despite his courageous stand at Karnal, he was captured. 
  • Unfortunately, his attempt to entice Nadir Shah into attacking Delhi backfired, and facing an enormous demand for payment, he took his own life in 1739.
• Improvements in Overall Administration: Under Saadat Khan’s leadership, Awadh underwent significant changes that bolstered its autonomy within the Mughal Empire. 
  • He reformed the revenue system, introduced a new land revenue settlement, and granted jagirs to the local gentry. These measures, coupled with a flourishing trade, contributed to the province’s prosperity.
• Rise of Local Elite Class: A new regional ruling elite emerged, comprising Indian Muslims, Afghans, and Hindus, who became Saadat Khan’s main support base. This ruling elite maintained communication with the Mughal court and expanded Awadh’s frontiers with the emperor’s formal approval.

• Safdar Jung as Successor: Saadat Khan left behind no male heir. His daughter had been wed to his nephew, Safdar Jang, who succeeded him in Oudh. 
  • The emperor, Muhammad Shah, issued a decree recognizing Safdar Jang as the Nawab of Oudh. 
  • In 1748, Emperor Ahmed Shah named Safdar Jang his Wazir, leading to Safdar Jang and his descendants being colloquially termed Nawab-Wazirs. 
• Increasing Influence and Alliances: The political landscape of Awadh and its autonomy continued to evolve through interactions with external powers. 
  • Safdar Jang’s alliances with Afghan leader Ahmad Shah Abdali and involvement in the struggle between the British and the deposed Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim, marked significant developments. 
  • However, these interactions eventually led to his defeat by the British in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

Rise of Bengal 

Murshid Kuli Khan established the autonomous state of Bengal. From Aurangzeb’s reign, he served as the Diwan and Deputy Governor of Bengal, initially under Prince Azim-us-Shan and later Prince Farrukhsiyar. By 1713, he was the Governor of Bengal and, by 1719, Orissa was also under his control. His leadership saw Bengal prospering in trade and commerce.

• Upon Murshid Kuli’s passing in 1727, his son-in-law, Shuja-ud-Din, took over the reins. In 1733, Muhammad Shah extended his governance to include Bihar. 
  • After Shuja-ud-Din’s demise in 1739, his son Sarfaraz Khan became the ruler. 
  • Yet, in 1740, Alivardi Khan, who was then the Deputy Governor of Bihar, revolted. He confronted and defeated Sarfaraz Khan at Gheria on 10 April 1740, subsequently taking control. 
• Alivardi Khan: To legitimize his ascendancy, Alivardi Khan sent a substantial gift of two crores of rupees to Delhi, securing the emperor’s approval. Alivardi Khan faced external challenges, including the Maratha invasions and the Afghan rebellion. 
  • To address Maratha’s depredations, Alivardi Khan agreed to pay Chauth (one-fourth of the revenue) and handed over Orissa to Marathas in 1751. Although the Maratha raids briefly disrupted Bengal’s trade, a surge in European trade, driven by companies like the Dutch, French, and English, aided in the region’s recovery.
  • While Alivardi Khan constantly defended his territories from Maratha invasions, he, much like the Nizam and Nawab-Wazirs of Oudh, maintained the symbolic allegiance to the Mughal emperor’s sovereignty.
  • Succession Conflicts: Alivardi Khan’s death in 1756 led to a power struggle among contenders for the throne, destabilizing Bengal’s administration. 
• Plassey Conspiracy: The English East India Company exploited the situation, gaining a foothold in Bengal through the Plassey Conspiracy of 1757, ultimately ending the rule of Siraj-ud-daula.

Rise of Rajputs 

The Rajputs, previously distanced by Aurangzeb’s ill-advised decisions, saw the Mughal empire’s 18th-century frailty as a chance to reclaim and expand their dominion. This complex interplay between the Mughals and Rajputs led to Emperor Bahadur Shah advancing to Jodhpur and Ajit Singh’s subsequent surrender in 1708. That same year saw Ajit Singh, Jay Singh II, and Durgadas Rathor ally against the Mughals. By 1714, the Mughal army, led by Commander-in-chief Hussain Ali, moved to Jodhpur, forcing Ajit Singh to seek peace by offering his daughter’s hand to Emperor Farrukhsiyar.

• Cautious Expansion: The Rajputs followed various policies to secure their self-interest during the tussle between the Sayyid brothers for power within the Mughal Empire. They even managed to attain prestigious posts in the Mughal court during this period, consolidating their influence. 
  • As a result, the Rajputs gained control over a vast empire that extended from Delhi to Surat on the western coast.
• Rajput Resistance and Regional Ambitions: In Rajasthan, the leading Rajput emirs energetically worked to overturn the intricate imperial administrative controls that had been imposed on the province. 
• Declining Allegiance to the Mughal Empire: They dedicated considerable efforts to expanding their home territories, to establish near-autonomous regional kingdoms. 
  • As the Mughal Empire faced mounting challenges, the Rajput rulers stopped paying tribute, demonstrating their growing desire for independence.
• Reactions to Aurangjeb’s Approach: The roots of this desire for independence can be traced back to the harsh treatment Rajputs received during Aurangzeb’s reign. His ruthless campaigns in Rajasthan, coupled with his religious intolerance, including the revival of Jizyah, stirred deep-seated anger among many Rajputs. 
  • The insults offered to their chiefs and their religion, along with the unnecessary severity of Aurangzeb’s campaigns, left a lasting scar. 
  • A group that had once been a significant pillar of support for the Mughal Empire had become deeply alienated and now approached the throne with distrust.
  • Ajit Singh, for instance, secured control over Ajmer and Gujarat as a result of his allegiance to the Sayyids. Jay Singh II of Jaipur, on the other hand, was appointed as the Agra governor in 1721, eventually gaining control over the Surat region under Emperor Muhammad Shah. 
• Zenith of Power: Rajputs ruled vast territories, spanning from 600 miles south of Delhi to the western coast at Surat. 
  • However, internal conflicts and divisions among the Rajputs hindered their ability to cement their hold on these territories, making them vulnerable to Maratha incursions.

Rise of Jats

The Jats, primarily agricultural settlers around Delhi, Mathura, and Agra, rebelled against Aurangzeb’s harsh policies. While the uprising was quashed, the region remained restless. 

• Churaman (1660-1721): Churaman, a Jat leader, constructed the Thun fort and defied Mughal power in the area. 
  • However, in 1721, Jay Singh II, the Agra governor, led a Mughal force against him.  After his fort was seized, Churaman took his own life. 
• Badan Singh (1685-1756): Leadership then passed to Badan Singh, Churaman’s nephew, who bolstered his forces and erected the forts of Dig, Kumber, Ver, and Bharatpur. 
  • Badan Singh expanded his influence over Mathura and Agra, setting the Bharatpur Kingdom’s foundation. Ahmad Shah Abdali acknowledged Badan Singh’s accomplishments, bestowing upon him the title of ‘raja’ along with the ‘Mahendra’ honorific.
• Suraj Mal: It was under Suraj Mal that Jat’s power reached its zenith. Leveraging the Mughal empire’s vulnerability post-Nadir Shah’s invasion. 

Rise of Sikhs 

Sikhism, a religious and political movement that originated in Punjab, India, traces its roots back to the late 15th century when Guru Nanak founded the faith. Initially, Sikhism started as a reformist religious movement emphasizing inner devotion and equality among all human beings. As the Mughal Empire was being established under Babur’s rule, Guru Nanak’s teachings attracted numerous devotees and began shaping the Sikh identity under the guidance of subsequent Gurus. 

• Guru Tegh Bahadur: In 1675, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb imprisoned and executed the ninth Sikh leader, Guru Tegh Bahadur, for not converting to Islam. 
  • Sikh stories tell of the guru championing the cause of the Kashmiri Pandits and shielding them from Mughal tyranny. 
• Guru Gobind Singh: It was Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and final Guru, who transformed Sikhs into a political and military force. 
  • Khalsa: In 1699, he established the Khalsa, a brotherhood of Sikhs, which included distinctive insignia and mandated the carrying of weapons. This was a response to the ongoing conflict with the Mughals, signaling the need for armed resistance to defend the Sikh community.
    • Guru Gobind Singh’s open confrontation with the Mughals led to a complex trajectory. He attempted to establish an autonomous domain around Anandpur, leading to conflicts with the hill chiefs of Himachal Pradesh. 
  • Despite initial hostilities, attempts at reconciliation were made by Mughal emperors like Aurangzeb and Bahadur Shah. However, Guru Gobind Singh was eventually assassinated in 1708.
• Banda Bahadur: After Guru Gobind Singh’s death, leadership was passed on to Banda Bahadur, who continued the Sikh revolt and rallied peasants and lower castes of Punjab against the Mughals. 
  • Banda’s movement faced challenges as the upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him for his support of the lower castes and rural poor. His rebellion ultimately failed in 1715.
• Power Vacuum and Resurgence of Sikhs: The subsequent years witnessed Sikh resurgence due to the dislocation of Punjab’s administration caused by invasions led by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali. 
  • In the power vacuum that followed, the Sikhs once again rose to prominence and organized themselves into various small, highly mobile groups called Jathas, each commanded by a Jathedar. These groups formed regional confederacies or Misls under local chieftains.
• Ranjit Singh: Ranjit Singh son of Mahan Singh from the Sukarchakiya misl, is credited with creating a robust Punjabi realm. 
  • He expanded his territory from the Sutlej to the Jhelum rivers, taking Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. By an agreement with the British in Amritsar, he recognized their dominion over the Cis-Sutlej regions. 
  • Under Ranjit Singh’s leadership, the Sikh Empire expanded its territories, reaching as far as Peshawar by 1834.
  • As a ruler, Ranjit Singh enhanced his military with European assistance. Yet, by the end of his rule, the British pressured him into the Tripartite Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the English Company, allowing British forces passage through Punjab to restore Shah Shuja to Kabul’s throne. 
  • With Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, his heirs failed to maintain the state, leading to British annexation.

Rise of Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad

In the area near Farrukhabad, to the east of Delhi, an Afghan named Mohammad Khan Bangash founded an autonomous kingdom during the tenure of Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah. The regions of Rohilakhand and the Bangash Pathans’ realm emerged due to the Afghan movement into India. A significant influx of Afghans into India occurred in the mid-18th century, driven by political and economic upheavals in Afghanistan. 

• Region: Seizing the opportunity presented by the power vacuum in North India after Nadir Shah’s incursion, Ali Muhammad Khan established a small dominion called Rohilakhand. This territory stretched from Kumaon in the north to the Ganga River in the south within the Himalayan foothills. 
• Challenges: The residents of Rohilkhand, referred to as the Rohillas, faced significant challenges from neighbouring powers, including the Jats, rulers of Awadh, and later, the Marathas and the British.

Nature and Limitations of Regional States 

Accepted Symbolic Mughal Authority: Emerging independent provincial systems still maintained connections with the Mughal central power, viewing the emperor as a protective figure. Even insurgent leaders from the Marathas and Sikhs accepted the Mughal emperor’s overarching authority. 

• Independent Political System: The political structures in these provinces were local in nature, operating with the combined efforts of various regional entities such as landlords, traders, regional elites, and leaders. 
  • To sustain their rule, provincial leaders had to accommodate these diverse regional interests. However, there were some outliers; for example, leaders in Mysore didn’t acknowledge local leaders.
• Limitations: These regional states had their shortcomings. Provincial leaders struggled to establish robust financial, administrative, and military structures. Although some, like Mysore, attempted to modernize, in general, they lagged in scientific and technological advancement. 
  • A significant issue was their perpetual conflicts with neighboring states, with no single power emerging as a clear victor. 
  • These regional powers were potent enough to challenge the Mughal empire, but none could establish a consistent national governance system.

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• • Jagirdari Crisis: The crisis in the jagirdari system grew as agricultural profits dwindled and competition for the remaining resources increased. 
    • While trade, both domestic and international, remained consistent and even flourished, the broader economy faced stagnation.

Conclusion

The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century led to the rise of regional powers across India, each establishing its autonomy while still recognizing symbolic Mughal authority. These states, though influential, faced internal challenges and constant conflicts, preventing any single power from achieving national dominance. The legacy of this period is a complex web of cultural, political, and military developments that shaped the trajectory of India’s history leading up to British colonization.

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