Social and Ideological Foundations of 19th-Century Indian Reform Movements

The regeneration movement in the nineteenth century was primarily driven by the emerging middle class and educated intellectuals, including those with traditional and Western education. However, there was a notable distinction between the middle-class ideals influenced by an increasing awareness of Western developments and the predominantly non-middle-class social base. The intelligentsia of the nineteenth century looked to the European ‘middle class’ as a model. Through Western education, they learned about the significant transformation that had taken place in the West, moving from medieval to modern times, thanks to movements like the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and democratic revolution or reform.

Ideological Basis for Reforms 

The reform movements were guided by some key intellectual principles which include rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism. 

Rationalism

• Rationalist Framework in Social Relevance: Social relevance was assessed through a rationalist lens. Early figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Akshay Kumar Dutt exemplified this unwavering rational approach. 
• Emphasis on Causality and Demonstrability: Raja Rammohan Roy rejected supernatural explanations, emphasising causality as the fundamental link in the entire observable universe. 
  • He believed that demonstrability was the only true measure of truth.
• Mechanical Analysis of Natural and Social Phenomena: Akshay Kumar Dutt took this a step further, asserting that all natural and social phenomena could be analysed and comprehended through purely mechanical processes. 
  • This perspective not only allowed them to approach tradition with reason but also enabled them to assess contemporary socio-religious practices based on their societal benefits, replacing blind faith with rationality. 
  • In the Brahmo Samaj, this rational approach led to the rejection of the infallibility of the Vedas. 
• Vivekananda’s Call for Scientific Method in Religion: According to Swami Vivekananda, the same method of investigation that applies to sciences should be the basis on which religion must justify itself. 
  • Although some reformers tended to appeal to faith and ancient authority to support their appeal, on the whole, a rational and secular outlook was very much evident in putting forward an alternative to prevalent social practices.
• Balance between Islam and Modernity: In the Aligarh Movement, it resulted in finding a balance between the teachings of Islam and the demands of the modern era. Syed Ahmed Khan, in particular, argued that religious doctrines were not fixed and unchangeable. 
  • He emphasized the role of religion in societal progress, warning that if religion failed to evolve and meet the needs of the time, it would stagnate, as was perceived to be the case with Islam in India.
• Secular and Rational Perspectives: The perspective on social reform during this time was not solely driven by religious considerations. 
  • There was a clear presence of a rational and secular outlook, providing an alternative to prevailing social practices. 
• Progressive Views on Marriage and Family Dynamics: Akshay Kumar Dutt advocated for widow remarriage and opposed practices like polygamy and child marriage, focusing more on their societal impact rather than seeking religious approval. 
  • He supported his arguments with medical opinions against child marriage and held progressive views on marriage and family dynamics, emphasizing courtship, partnership, equality, and the possibility of divorce through both legal and customary means.
• Secular Approach to Social Reform: In Maharashtra, there was less reliance on religion as a basis for social reform compared to other regions. Personality like Gopal Hari Deshmukh, also known as Lokahitavadi, believed that whether social reforms had religious approval was irrelevant. 
  • He argued that if religion did not endorse these changes, then the religious doctrine itself should be modified, as it was created by humans and what was prescribed in ancient scriptures might not necessarily be relevant to contemporary society. 
  • This perspective highlights the shift towards a more secular and rational approach to social reform.

Religious Universalism

The focus of reforms was specific to particular issues, but their religious outlook was universal. 

• Universal Theism and Comparative Religion: Figures like Raja Rammohan Roy viewed different religions as expressions of a common belief in universal theism. 
  • He defended the fundamental principles shared by all religions, such as the monotheism of the Vedas and the Unitarianism of Christianity, while criticizing aspects like Hindu polytheism and Christian trinitarianism. 
• Shared Faith Across Prophets: This universalist perspective also was echoed by Syed Ahmed Khan, who believed that all prophets preached the same faith and that different nations had their own prophets. 
  • Keshub Chandra Sen further emphasized this idea, asserting that all established religions in the world were true. 
• Impact of Universalism: The universalist perspective had a significant impact on the political and social outlook of the time until religious particularism gained prominence in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
• Beyond Religious Identity: Terms like ‘Muslim yoke’ and ‘Muslim tyranny’ were used to describe pre-colonial rule, but this was a political critique influenced by the arbitrary nature of pre-colonial political institutions, rather than a strictly religious perspective. 
  • The focus was on the oppression itself, not the religious identity associated with it. 
  • Syed Ahmed Khan emphasized that the rule of earlier emperors and rulers was characterized by tyranny and oppression, regardless of religious affiliation. 

However, this does not mean that religious identity did not play a significant role in shaping people’s social perspectives; it certainly did. The emphasis on universalism by the reformers was an effort to counteract this influence. 

Humanism

The social reform movements introduced a fresh humanitarian morality, emphasizing the belief that humanity can advance and has indeed advanced. They asserted that moral values are fundamentally those that promote human progress. The humanist dimension of the religious reform movements was evident in their emphasis on an individual’s right to interpret religious scriptures in the context of human reason and welfare. 

Characteristics of Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Socio-religious reform movements in India displayed distinct characteristics:

1. Regional Concentration: While some movements like the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj had branches in various parts of the country, they were particularly prominent in Bengal and Punjab, respectively.
2. Limited to Specific Religions or Castes: These reform movements were often rooted in specific religious or caste communities.
3. Varied Emergence Over Time: The timing of these movements varied across different regions of India. For instance, reform efforts began in Bengal in the early 19th century, whereas they only gained momentum in Kerala towards the late 19th century.
4. Common Goals and Perspectives: Despite their regional and religious variations, these movements shared common goals focused on societal and educational reforms.
5. Educated Middle-Class Leadership: Many leaders of these movements were well-educated, middle-class individuals who were influenced by Western ideas and values, which they used to advocate for change in Indian society.
6. Regeneration of Society: The overarching aim of these movements was the rejuvenation of Indian society, even though their approaches might have differed.
7. Universal Outlook: They emphasized a universal perspective that transcended religious or caste boundaries.
8. Opposition to Caste and Gender Discrimination: These movements unequivocally opposed the caste system and championed equality. Leaders like Jyotiba Phule and Sri Narayana Guru actively advocated for its abolition.
9. Emancipation of Women and the Downtrodden: Emphasis was placed on the empowerment and upliftment of women and marginalized communities.
10. Humanism: The promotion of humanistic values contributed to the betterment of underprivileged and backward classes.
11. Propagation of Self-Respect and Self-Reliance: These movements encouraged Indians to embrace self-respect and self-reliance, serving as a check against malpractices within Indian religion.
12. Integral Role in India’s Freedom Struggle: The Indian Renaissance became an integral part of Indian society during the struggle for independence, gradually fostering rationalism and humanism.

Two Strands of Reforms 

These reform movements can be broadly categorized into two groups: Reformist movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, and the Aligarh movement; and Revivalist movements like the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, and the Deoband movement. Both types of movements drew on appeals to restore the lost purity of the religion they aimed to reform. The key distinction between these movements lies in the extent to which they relied on tradition versus reason and conscience.

One significant aspect common to all these reform movements was their emphasis on both religious and social reform. This connection arose from two main reasons: 

• Religious Foundations of Social Customs: First, nearly every social custom and institution in India found its foundation in religious directives and approvals. 
  • This meant that social reform was contingent on reforming the existing religious beliefs that upheld these customs. 
• Interconnection of Religious and Social Reform: Second, Indian reformers recognized the intricate interrelation between various aspects of human activities. 
  • For instance, Raja Rammohun Roy believed that religious reform should precede the demand for social reform or political rights. This dual focus on religious and social reform became a hallmark of the reform movements of the time.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the 19th-century reform movements in India, driven by a blend of rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism, reflected a profound shift toward modernization and social equity. These movements, whether reformist or revivalist, intertwined religious and social reforms to challenge outdated customs and promote progress. By embracing both Western ideas and indigenous values, they laid the groundwork for a more inclusive and enlightened Indian society, crucially impacting the nation’s trajectory towards independence and modernity.

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