Anglo-Afghan Relations: British Strategic Interests and Conflicts in the 19th Century

During the early 19th century, Russia’s growing influence in Persia began to take over that of Britain, disrupting British plans for establishing a new trade route via the Euphrates River to India. Particularly after the Treaty of Turkomanchai in 1828, British concerns heightened over Russia’s potential ambitions towards India. Consequently, the British sought a more defensible frontier on the Indian side, with the northwest passes appearing critical for entry into India. It became imperative for Britain that Afghanistan be governed by a pro-British ruler.

Forward Policy of Auckland

Lord Auckland’s Forward Policy: Lord Auckland, appointed as the Governor-General of India in 1836, promoted a proactive strategy. 

• This ‘Forward Policy’ suggested that the British East India Company take direct action to safeguard India’s borders against a suspected Russian onslaught. 
• This goal was to be attained either through diplomatic agreements with bordering states or through outright annexation.
• Search for Alliance by Afghans: Afghanistan’s ruler, Amir Dost Mohammed, sought an alliance with Britain but insisted on British assistance to regain Peshawar from the Sikhs—a demand the British in India refused. Consequently, Dost Mohammed sought aid from Russia and Persia. 
  • This prompted the British to implement the Forward Policy, leading to the formation of a Tripartite Treaty in 1838 between the British, the Sikhs, and the dethroned Shah Shuja (who had lost the Afghan throne in 1809 and had since resided under British patronage in Ludhiana). 
• Terms of the Tripartite Treaty: The treaty’s terms were:
  • Military and Financial Support for Shah Shuja’s Ascension: Shah Shuja would ascend to the throne with military support from the Sikhs, while the British provided financial backing and remained otherwise uninvolved;
  • Collaborative International Relations: Shah Shuja would manage international relations with guidance from the Sikhs and British advisors;
  • Transfer of Sovereignty: In exchange for a significant sum, Shah Shuja would relinquish his sovereign authority over the Amirs of Sindh

Shah Shuja acknowledged Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Sovereignty and was to acknowledge the dominion of the Sikh leader, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, over territories located to the east of the River Indus.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42)

Shifting Alliances and the Road to Conflict: Following the tripartite agreement of 1838, the regional political dynamics shifted dramatically with Persia ceasing its Herat siege and Russia withdrawing its emissary from Kabul. 

• British Persistence: Despite these changes, the British persisted with their assertive regional policy, leading to the outbreak of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42). 
  • The British aimed to erect a steadfast defence against potential incursions from the northwest.
• Costly Success of the British: The British forces made a triumphant entry into Kabul in August 1839 after mounting a successful assault. They had managed to secure the allegiance of many tribes through financial incentives. 
  • Shah Shuja’s Unpopularity: Dost Mohammed capitulated in 1840, and Shah Shuja was installed as the leader of Afghanistan. However, Shah Shuja proved unpopular with the Afghan population. 
  • Outbreak of Afghan Insurrection: Following the withdrawal of British support, an Afghan insurrection erupted, culminating in the assassination of the British commandant in Kabul. 
  • Failed British Treaty and Retreat: The British were driven to negotiate a treaty in 1841 with Afghan leaders, consenting to retreat from Afghanistan and reinstate Dost Mohammed. However, this British strategy collapsed.
  • High Cost of British Military Campaign: The military campaign in Afghanistan proved costly for the British administration in India, expending approximately 15 million rupees and suffering the loss of almost 20,000 soldiers.

In a subsequent campaign, the British forces retook Kabul in September 1842, but this time they chose a diplomatic approach. They reached an understanding with Dost Mohammed, withdrawing from Kabul and acknowledging his status as the independent sovereign of Afghanistan.

John Lawrence and the Strategy of Deliberate Non-Action

Strategy of Deliberate Non-Action: John Lawrence (1864–69) implemented a strategy of deliberate non-action, which emerged as a response to the calamities of the inaugural Afghan conflict and stemmed from practical wisdom and a deep familiarity with the frontier quandary and the Afghan desire for autonomy. 

• Non-Interference in Dost Mohammed’s Succession: Even with the passing of Dost Mohammed in 1863, there was a deliberate absence of meddling in the ensuing conflict over his succession. The tenets of Lawrence’s strategy were the maintenance of two prerequisites: 
  • That tranquility along the border remained unshaken
  • None of the contenders in the internal conflict appealed for external assistance. 

With Sher Ali consolidating his reign, Lawrence endeavored to foster amicable relations with him.

Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 

Lytton, appointed by the Conservative administration of Benjamin Disraeli (1874–80), assumed the role of Viceroy of India in 1876. He initiated a fresh diplomatic strategy termed ‘assertive aloofness’, with objectives to establish scientific borders and protect ‘domains of influence’. 

• For Lytton, the ties with Afghanistan could not remain indefinite.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870–80):

Lytton proposed a preferential agreement to Sher Ali, but the Amir sought to maintain cordial relations with both significant neighbors, Russia and British India, while keeping a prudent distance from each. 

• Subsequently, Sher Ali declined to host a British diplomatic representative in Kabul, despite having previously allowed a similar privilege to the Russians. 

• • Lytton, discontented by this rebuff, and in light of the Russian diplomatic withdrawal from Kabul, resolved to mount an invasion of Afghanistan. 
    • Confronted by the British onslaught, Sher Ali escaped, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) with Yakub Khan, Sher Ali’s eldest offspring.
• Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879): The accord established after the Second-Anglo-Afghan War mandated that:
  • The Amir’s international affairs would be advised by the Government of India
  • A perpetual British delegate would reside in Kabul.
  • The Government of India would extend to the Amir assistance against external hostilities, along with annual financial aid.

However, Yakub was compelled to relinquish his position due to widespread opposition, prompting the British to reclaim Kabul and Kandahar. Abdur Rehman took over as the new Amir. Lytton formulated, but failed to implement, a strategy for Afghanistan’s fragmentation. Later, Ripon renounced this approach and decided to preserve Afghanistan as a buffer state.

British India and the North-West Frontier

Durand Line Agreement (1893): Between 1891 and 1892, British occupation of Hunza and Nagar in the Gilgit Valley raised concerns for Afghan Amir Abdur Rahman. 

• The Durand Line was established, delineating Afghan and British territories, granting the Amir control over certain districts and an increased subsidy. However, lasting peace was elusive, leading to tribal insurrections.
• British Military Presence and Insurgencies (1893-1898): Despite stationing forces at Malakand Pass and establishing a permanent military presence in Chitral, tribal insurgencies persisted until 1898, challenging the stability of the region.
• Curzon’s Policy of Withdrawal and Concentration (1899-1905): Viceroy Curzon, from 1899 to 1905, pursued a policy of withdrawal and concentration. British forces vacated forward positions, handing them to tribal militias guided by British commanders. 
  • Curzon encouraged tribes to maintain tranquility, leading to a relatively peaceful Northwest Frontier.
• Creation of North-West Frontier Province (NWFP): Curzon instituted the NWFP, placing it under the direct governance of British India, distinct from the previous jurisdiction of the Punjab’s lieutenant governor. 
  • This strategy contributed to the stability of the region.
• Establishment of NWFP as a Province (1932): In January 1932, it was declared that the NWFP would become a province governed by a British-appointed governor. 
  • Since the partition in 1947, this province has been a part of Pakistan, experiencing relative stability after Curzon’s measures.

Conclusion

In the early 19th century, British strategic interests in India clashed with growing Russian influence. This geopolitical tension led to British efforts to secure Afghanistan as a buffer state, shaping subsequent Anglo-Afghan relations. Following the First World War and the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), the Afghans asserted their right to complete sovereignty. Habibullah (Abdur Rahman’s successor in 1901) was assassinated in 1919, and the subsequent ruler Amanullah proclaimed a full-scale conflict against the British. Peace was restored in 1921, with Afghanistan achieving autonomy over its foreign relations.

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