Anglo-Maratha Wars: The Struggle for Supremacy in 18th and 19th Century India

After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as one of its most formidable opponents, seizing the opportunity to ascend to power. They held sway over a vast expanse of the Indian subcontinent, extracting tribute even from regions not under their direct rule. By the mid-18th century, they had expanded their aspirations to the North Indian empire, having an influential presence in Lahore and playing a pivotal role as kingmakers in the Mughal court.

Although their ambitions suffered a setback after their defeat by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas soon regathered their forces. Within ten years, they once again became a dominant force in Indian politics.

System of Confederacy

Formation of the Maratha Confederacy: Bajirao I (1720-40), considered greatest of all the Peshwas, had started a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage the rapidly expanding Maratha power, and to some extent appease the Kshatriya section of the Marathas (Peshwas were brahmins) led by the Senapati Dabodi.

• Governance and Conquest: Under the Maratha confederacy, influential Maratha families, each led by a chief, were tasked with conquest and governance within their domains, but in the name of then Maratha sovereign, Shahu. 
  • Prominent families that rose to power included the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Bhonsles of Nagpur, the Holkars of Indore, the Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwas of Poona.
• This confederacy, from Bajirao I through to Balaji Baji Rao, operated harmoniously until the pivotal defeat at Panipat. 
  • Pre-Panipat Scenario: The subsequent loss and the premature death of Madhavrao I (Resurrector of Maratha Power after Maratha debacle at the Third Battle of Panipat) in 1772 loosened the Peshwas’ control over the confederacy. 
  • Post-Panipat Scenario: Despite instances of unity against common adversaries like the British from 1775 to 1782, disputes among the chiefs were more frequent.

English Interference in Maratha Politics 

Maratha-British Struggles for Dominance: From the late 18th to the early 19th century, three major confrontations took place between the Marathas and the British, each fighting for political supremacy, with the English emerging victorious in the end. 

• Causes of Conflict: The root of these skirmishes lay in the British’s excessive ambition and the internal disunity of the Marathas, which gave the British hope for their ambitions. The British in Bombay aspired to emulate the governing model established by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.  
  • Consequently, when a succession dispute caused a rift within the Maratha faction, it presented the British with a coveted chance to intervene.

First Anglo-Maratha War

Background

• Assassination of Narayanrao and Raghunathrao’s Usurpation: Post-Madhavrao’s demise in 1772, his sibling Narayanrao ascended as the Peshwa. 
  • However, Narayanrao’s uncle, Raghunathrao, had his nephew assassinated and named himself as the next Peshwa, although he was not a legal heir. 
• Birth of Sawai Madhavrao: Narayanrao’s widow Gangabai gave birth to a son. The newborn infant was named ‘Sawai’ (One and a Quarter) Madhavrao and he was legally the next Peshwa. 
• Barabhai Council and the Regency of Nana Phadnavis: A council of twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai) led by  Nana Phadnavis at the helm, sought to appoint the infant as Peshwa and rule for him as regent.

Treaties of Surat and Purandar

• Treaty of Surat: Raghunathrao, unwilling to give up his position in power, sought help from the English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775. 
  • Under the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the English along with a portion of the revenues from Surat and Bharuch districts.
  • In return, the English were to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers. 
• Treaty of Purandhar: The British Calcutta Council, on the other side of India, condemned the Treaty of Surat (1775) and sent Colonel Upton to Pune to annul it and make a new treaty (Treaty of Purandhar, 1776) with the regency renouncing Raghunath and promising him a pension. 
  • The Bombay government rejected this and gave refuge to Raghunath. 
• Tensions Rise: In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated his treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting the French a port on the west coast. The English retaliated by sending a force towards Pune. 

Course of War

• Encounter at Pune: The forces of the English and the Marathas encountered each other in the periphery of Pune. 
  • Although the Maratha army possessed a greater quantity of soldiers in comparison to the English forces, the latter exhibited significantly superior capabilities. 
• Strategic Maneuvers: The Maratha force was led by a capable general, Mahadji Scindia. Maratha forces advanced towards the Ghats, specifically, the mountain passes near Talegaon. 
  • The move resulted in encirclement of the English from all sides.  
• Scorched-Earth Policy: The Marathas also employed a scorched-earth strategy under which they burned agricultural land and contaminated water sources. 
• Retreat and Surrender: When the Marathas launched an attack, the English started to retreat to Talegaon and were compelled to flee to the Wadgaon village. 
  • Denied food and water, the English decided to surrender by the middle of January 1779, which resulted in the Treaty of Wadgaon under which the Bombay Presidency was compelled to give up every region which they seized in 1775. 

Treaty of Salbai (1782)

Background

• Warren Hastings’ Rejection: Warren Hastings, the Governor General of Bengal, declined to accept the Treaty of Wadgaon and subsequently dispatched a substantial military contingent led by Colonel Goddard. 
• Key Military Victories: This force successfully seized control of Ahmedabad in February 1779 and Bassein in December 1780. In August 1780, Captain Popham, leading a Bengal detachment, successfully took Gwalior. 
  • In February in the year 1781, the English forces, led by General Camac, achieved a decisive victory over Sindhia’s troops at the Battle of Sipri.
• Sindhia’s Peace Proposal: Sindhia put out a novel proposition for peace between the Peshwa and the English, resulting in the signing of the peace of Salbai in May 1782. 
• Ratification of the Treaty of Salbai: This agreement was officially approved by Hastings in June 1782 and subsequently ratified by Phadnavis in February 1783. The contract provided a guarantee of peace between the two factions for twenty years. 

Provisions of the Treaty

The primary stipulations of the Treaty of Salbai encompassed the following: 

• The English were to retain possession of Salsette.
• It is imperative that the entirety of the area that was acquired after the Treaty of Purandar in 1776, encompassing Bassein, be duly returned to the Marathas.
• In the context of Gujarat, it is recommended that Fateh Singh Gaekwad retain control over the territory he held before the conflict and continue to serve the Peshwa in the same capacity as previously.
• It is recommended that the English refrain from providing any additional assistance to Raghunathrao, while the Peshwa is advised to allocate a maintenance stipend to him.
• Haidar Ali needed to restore the entirety of the region that was acquired from both the English and the Nawab of Arcot.
• The English population should continue to benefit from the trade privileges they had previously enjoyed.
• The Peshwa must refrain from extending support to any other European nation.
• The Peshwa and the English must establish a mutual agreement ensuring that their respective allies maintain a state of peaceful coexistence.
• It is recommended that Mahadji Scindia assume the role of a mutual guarantor to ensure diligent adherence to the stipulations outlined in the treaty.

Second-Anglo Maratha Wars

Background

• Rise of Bajirao II and Internal Struggles: The Second Anglo-Maratha War began in similar circumstances as the first. After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide in 1795, Bajirao II, took over as Peshwa. 
  • Nana Phadnavis, a fierce opponent of Bajirao II, was appointed chief minister. 
• British Exploitation of Maratha Infighting: The dissensions among the Marathas offered an opportunity for the English to engage in Maratha affairs. Further, the death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 provided the British with an additional edge.

Course of War

• Assassination and the Unfolding of Hostilities: The beginning of war can be traced to the assassination of Jaswantrao Holkar’s brother, Vithuji by Peshwa Bajirao II. In response, Jaswant Rao Holkar aligned his forces against Scindia and Bajirao II’s combined armies. 
• Battle of Hadapsar and the Treaty of Bassein: On October 25, 1802, Jaswant decisively defeated the armies of the Peshwa and Scindia at Hadapsar near Poona, installing Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, as Peshwa. 
  • Bajirao II escaped to Bassein, where he signed a treaty with the English on December 31, 1802.

Treaty of Bassein  (1802)

In this agreement, Peshwa Bajirao II consented:

• To accept from the Company a native infantry (consisting of at least 6,000 troops) with the customary proportion of field artillery and European artillerymen attached, to be permanently stationed in his territories
• To cede to the Company territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakh.
• To Surrender the city of Surat. 
• To give up all claims for chauth on the Nizam’s territories.
• To accept the Company’s arbitration in all disputes between him and the Nizam or the Gaekwad. 
• To refrain from employing Europeans.
• To subject his relations with other states to the control of the English. 

Reduced to Vassalage

• Challenges to Maratha Independence: After the Peshwa ratified the subsidiary alliance, Bhonsle and Scindia made an effort to preserve the independence of the Maratha Empire. However, the English army, led by Arthur Wellesley, was exceptionally organized and well-prepared. 
• Defeat and Diplomacy: As a result, it was able to defeat the combined armies of Scindia and Bhonsle and compel them to forge distinct subsidiary treaties with the English.
• Failed Unity and Treaty Outcomes: Yashwantrao Holkar tried to unite a coalition of Indian monarchs against the English in 1804. However, his efforts were unsuccessful. Ultimately, the Marathas were defeated and were reduced to vassalage through various treaties: 

• • Defeat of Bhonsle- the Treaty of Deogaon (1803)
  • Defeat of Scindia– the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803)
  • Defeat of Holkar-the Treaty of Rajpurghat (1806)

Significance of the Treaty of Bassein

• Strategic Benefit: The treaty was signed by a Peshwa who lacked political authority, but the gains made by the English were immense. 
  • The provision of keeping English troops permanently in Maratha territory was of great strategic benefit. The Company already had troops in Mysore, Hyderabad and Lucknow. 
• Addition of Poona in the British Territories: The addition of Poona to the list meant that the Company’s troops were now more evenly spread and could be rushed to any place without much delay in times of need.
• Expansion of Area of Influence of Company: The Treaty of Bassein did not hand over India to the Company on a platter, it was a major development in that direction; the Company was now well placed to expand its areas of influence. In the circumstances, the observation that the treaty “gave the English the key to India,” may be exaggerated, but appears understandable.

Third Anglo-Maratha War

Background

• Multiple Factors: The underlying cause of the war can be attributed to three factors, one was the imperialistic goal of Lord Hastings to impose British supremacy.
  • Secondly control over the Pindaris, and lastly the enraged sentiments of Marathas over the Treaty of Bassein as they consider it as a complete surrender of their independence.
• Need to Broaden the Market: The monopoly of the East India Company on trade in China (save tea) was terminated by the Charter Act of 1813, and as a result, the business needed more markets. 
  • The need for the market became the driving force behind Lord Hastings’s imperialistic ambitions. 
• Issues of Pindaris: Security of their trade was threatened by the Pindaris (a diverse group of castes and classes, who served as mercenaries in Maratha armies) who in absence of regular work provided by Marathas restored to plundering neighboring lands, including the Company. 
  • British Actions Against the Pindaris and Accusations Against the Marathas: The English acted against the Pindaris resulting in the death of two Pindari Chiefs, Amir Khan and Karim Khan while third one Chitu Khan fled into the jungles. 
    • At the same time, they accused Marathas of sheltering the Pindaris. 
  • Enraged by the actions of the British on the Pindaris with underlying dissatisfaction over Treaty of Bassein, Maratha alliance again revived in form of Maratha confederacy under the leadership of Bajirao II made a last bid in 1817, resulting in Third Anglo-Maratha War. 
• Treaty of Bassein, described as ‘a treaty with a cipher (the Peshwa)’, wounded the feelings of the other Maratha leaders. They saw the treaty as an absolute surrender of independence.

Course of War 

• Maratha Decline: At Poona, the British Residency was attacked by the Peshwa. The Holkar prepared for battle after Appa Shahib of Nagpur assaulted the residence in Nagpur. 
  • However, by that point, the Marathas had virtually completely lost all of the components required for a power to develop. 

• Tulsi Bai Rule: Every Maratha state had disorganized and ineffective political and administrative systems. Tulsi Bai, Jaswantrao Holkar’s favored mistress, assumed control of Poona’s affairs following the latter’s death. 
  • Despite being a bright and astute woman, she was unable to run the state effectively due to the influence of some despicable individuals like Amir Khan and Balram Seth.
• Additionally, the Bhonsle in Nagpur and the Scindia in Gwalior had weakened. Thus, by retaliating forcefully, the English managed to prevent the Peshwa from imposing his rule over the Maratha confederacy.

Consequences of  War

• End of the Maratha Confederation: By June 1818, the Peshwa was defeated, leading to the dissolution of the Maratha confederation. The Peshwaship was dismantled. 
  • Peshwa Bajirao was reduced to a British pensioner at Bithur in Kanpur. 
• Restoration of Maratha Royalty: In a small gesture, Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji, was appointed ruler of the modest principality of Satara, carved from the former Peshwa’s domains.
• The British overpowered the Peshwa at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur. This led to several pivotal treaties:
  • The Treaty of Poona in June 1817 with the Peshwa.
  • The Treaty of Gwalior in November 1817 with Scindia.
  • The Treaty of Mandasor in January 1818 with Holkar.

Causes behind Maratha Loss

Several factors contributed to the Marathas’ downfall against the English, which are as follows:

• Poor Leadership: The autocratic nature of the Maratha governance meant that the ruler’s personality significantly influenced state affairs. Regrettably, subsequent Maratha figures such as Bajirao II, Daulatrao Scindia, and Jaswantrao Holkar lacked merit and were egocentric. 
  • In contrast with English officials such as  Elphinstone, John Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley (who later led the English to conquer Napoleon), Maratha rulers were weak.
• Flawed Foundation: The unity within the Maratha domain was superficial and fragile, lacking inherent solidarity. There had been no initiative since Shivaji’s reign towards concerted communal progress, educational outreach, or people’s amalgamation.
  • The Maratha ascendancy, rooted in a religious-nationalistic movement, exhibited glaring weaknesses when faced with a Western power’s structured might.
• Decentralized Political Framework: The Maratha realm functioned as a loose coalition under the Chhatrapati and subsequently the Peshwa. 
  • Dominant lords like the Gaikwad, Holkar, Scindia, and Bhonsle established quasi-autonomous regions, merely feigning allegiance to the Peshwa. 
  • Moreover, persistent animosities among confederacy factions and opportunistic alliances among the chiefs hindered Maratha unity.
• Outdated Military Practices: Despite individual bravery, the Marathas lagged in military structuring, advanced armaments, disciplined maneuvers, and competent command compared to the English. 
  • Disunity in leadership and treachery significantly debilitated the Maratha military. Their adoption of modern combat tactics was deficient, particularly in artillery, where even their governmental efforts proved ineffective.
• Inconsistent Economic Strategies: The Maratha authorities did not formulate a coherent economic policy that aligned with evolving times. 
  • The absence of industrialization or international trade meant the Maratha economy did not support a stable governance structure.
• English Diplomatic and Intelligence Superiority: The English excelled in diplomacy, adeptly securing alliances and isolating adversaries. Maratha Disaccord facilitated English strategies. Their diplomatic edge permitted swift offensive action. 
  • Contrary to the Marathas’ informational deficiencies, the English operated an efficient espionage network to understand their adversaries’ capabilities and vulnerabilities.
• Forward-Looking English Stance: The English society, invigorated by the Renaissance, had freed itself from ecclesiastical constraints and was invested in scientific innovation, exploratory seafaring, and colonial expansion. 
  • The Maratha leadership largely neglected statecraft, and the persistence of a traditional social order, emphasizing a priestly hegemony, impeded the consolidation of their empire.
  • Ultimately, the English engaged with a ‘fragmented household’ which began to disintegrate after minimal resistance.

Conclusion

The political organization of India in the 18th and early 19th centuries was greatly impacted by the Anglo-Maratha Wars. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas became a significant force in India, however they faced mounting challenges from the British East India Company. The conflicts, marked by shifting partnerships and tactical maneuvers, ultimately led to the weakening of Maratha power and the rise of British control in the region.

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