Birth and Spread of Communalism in India: A Historical and Ideological Analysis

As nationalism gained prominence, communalism emerged towards the close of the nineteenth century, posing a significant challenge to the cohesion of the Indian populace and the national movement. Unfortunately, this legacy persists. Communalism, more accurately described as ‘sectarianism,’ is fundamentally an ideology that prioritizes one’s own ethnic or religious group over the broader society. Communalism, often perceived as a straightforward concept due to its longstanding presence, comprises three distinct elements or stages, each succeeding the other.

Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism

Communalism or communal ideology consists of three basic elements or stages:

• First Stage (Foundation of Communal Ideology): Communal ideology’s initial aspect is the belief that individuals following the same religion share common secular interests encompassing political, economic, social, and cultural aspects. 
• This forms the bedrock of communal ideology, leading to the notion of socio-political communities grounded in religion. 
• These religion-based communities are considered the fundamental units of Indian society, surpassing classes, nationalities, linguistic-cultural groups, and political-territorial units.
• Second Stage (Dissimilarity of Interests): The second element asserts that, in a multi-religious society like India, the secular interests of followers of one religion differ from those of another. 
• This stage introduces the idea that the interests of various religion-based communities are dissimilar and divergent.
• Third Stage (Mutual Incompatibility): The third and final stage emerges when the interests of followers from different religions or communities are deemed mutually incompatible, antagonistic, and hostile. 
• This stage asserts that, for example, Hindus and Muslims cannot share common secular interests and that their interests are inherently opposed.

Communalism as an Ideology

Communalism is primarily an ideology on which communal politics is built, and communal violence is a consequential outcome of this ideology. Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, or Christian communalisms are considered variations of the same communal ideology.

In India, this ideology evolved through three distinct stages:

• Communal Nationalism: This stage involves the belief that individuals from a specific religious community share common secular interests, even in matters unrelated to religion. 
  • Communal ideology manifests in individuals, parties, or movements, beginning with the belief in the common secular interests of the followers of the same religion. 
  • Even some nationalists fell into this mindset, identifying as Nationalist Hindus, Nationalist Muslims, etc.
• Liberal Communalism: It involves a belief in and practice of communal politics while upholding certain liberal, democratic, humanist, and nationalist values. 
  • Advocates of liberal communalism believed that distinct communal interests could coexist within the broader national interests, fostering India’s nation-building. 
  • At this stage, the notion arises that two religious communities, having different religious interests, also possess divergent interests in the secular sphere, including economic, political, and cultural domains.
• Extreme Communalism: It aligns broadly with a fascist syndrome. Based on fear and hatred, it tends to employ violent language, deeds, or behavior against political opponents. Extreme communalism often declares that cultures and religions are in danger of suppression and extinction, perpetuating the theory of separate nations with permanent mutual antagonism. 
  • The belief intensifies to the point where different religious communities not only have distinct interests but also view these interests as incompatible. 
  • This extreme perspective suggests that coexistence is impossible as the interests of one community conflict with those of another.

India and Communalism

• Indian communalism is not unique and can be compared to similar phenomena and ideologies in other societies, such as Fascism, anti-Semitism, racism, the Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland, and the Christian-Muslim conflict in Lebanon.
• Modern Communalism: Communalists, bypassing basic economic interests, assert the protection of interests that may not necessarily exist. 
  • This modern phenomenon of communalism is deeply rooted in the contemporary social, economic, and political colonial structure. 
  • It emerged as a product of modern politics, characterized by mass mobilization and widespread popular participation. 
• Evolution of Communal Consciousness: The necessity for broader links, loyalties, and established identities became apparent in the landscape of modern politics, which saw the spread of ideas related to nation, class, and cultural-linguistic identity. 
  • In certain parts of India and among specific sections of the population, religious consciousness transformed into communal consciousness.
• The social origins of communalism can be traced back to the rising middle classes, who, according to the Left, propagated imaginary communal interests to further their economic agenda. 
  • Communalism, in this view, is seen as a quintessentially bourgeois question. 
  • The colonial administration played a supporting role in the communal campaign, serving as a channel through which colonialists expanded their social base.
• Alignment of Socio-Economic and Religious Differences: Communalists and colonialists found assistance in their motives due to the alignment of socio-economic distinctions with religious differences in Indian society. 
  • The inherent class contradictions were retroactively colored with a communal hue by vested interests. 
  • Conservative social reactionary elements offered full support to communalism.

• Religiosity and Communalism: While religiosity itself did not necessarily equate to communalism, the lack of education and low awareness of the outside world in India made religion a potential vehicle for communalism, exploited by those with sinister motives.

Reasons for the Growth of Communalism

Communalism burgeoned within the modern economic, political, and social institutions, where new identities were emerging in a disorganized manner, coexisting with the persisting old, pre-modern identities. The clash resulting from this fundamental dichotomy gave rise to a communal ideology.

Socio-economic Reasons

• Socio-economic factors played a significant role in the growth of communalism. Religion did not inherently dictate the economic and political interests of Hindus and Muslims. 
• Distinctions between communities, comprising both Hindus and Muslims, were rooted in language, culture, caste, social status, food and dress habits, and social practices. 
• Despite these differences, Hindu and Muslim masses shared common ways of life, with, for instance, a Bengali Muslim having more in common with a Bengali Hindu than with a Punjabi Muslim. 
  • Additionally, both Hindus and Muslims were equal victims of oppression and exploitation by British imperialism.
• Educational Disparity: Muslim intellectuals tended to remain traditional and backward, failing to absorb modern Western thought and scientific ideas. Even with the spread of modern education among Muslims, their proportion of educated individuals lagged far behind that of Hindus, Parsis, or Christians. 
• Economic Setbacks: Muslims also faced setbacks in participating in the growth of trade and industry. 
• The relatively small number of educated individuals and business leaders among Muslims made it easier for reactionary big landlords and wealthier classes to maintain influence over the Muslim masses. 
• While landlords and zamindars, whether Hindu or Muslim, supported British rule for self-interest, in Hindu society, modern intellectuals and the emerging commercial and industrialist class had taken leadership away from the old order of landlords.
• Government Employment: Educated Muslims, finding limited opportunities in business or professions, sought government employment. British officials and loyalist Muslim leaders, such as Syed Ahmad Khan, incited educated Muslims against their Hindu counterparts, emphasizing special treatment for Muslims in government service. 
  • The narrative presented to the educated Muslims was that loyalty to the British would result in government jobs and other special favors. 
  • Similar arguments were used by some loyalist Hindus and Parsis for their communities, albeit in the minority.
• Economic Backwardness and Unemployment: The economic backwardness of India and widespread unemployment provided fertile ground for the colonial government to exploit concessions, favours, and reservations to inflame communal and separatist tendencies. 
• Delayed Political Consciousness: Additionally, the delayed development of modern political consciousness among Muslims, coupled with the dominance of traditional reactionary elements over the Muslim masses, facilitated the establishment of a communal outlook.
• Emergence of Hindu and Muslim Nationalism: The discourse surrounding Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism emerged. 
  • Many politically inexperienced Hindus and Muslims failed to realize that the economic, educational, and cultural challenges they faced were rooted in their subjugation to foreign rule and economic underdevelopment.

British Policy of Divide and Rule

• Early British Repression and Discrimination Against Muslims: Initially, Muslims faced suspicion, repression, and discrimination from the British government, particularly following the Wahabi and 1857 revolts. 
  • The introduction of English education further contributed to the economic backwardness and exclusion of Muslims from government service, as it undermined Arabic and Persian learning.
• Concessions to Muslims: In the 1870s, as Indian nationalism began to emerge, and the educated middle classes became increasingly politicized, the British government altered its approach. 
  • Instead of repressing Muslims, they sought to rally their support by offering concessions, favors, and reservations. 
    • This strategy aimed to use the Muslim community against the rising nationalist forces. 
• Figures like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan were enlisted by the government to counter the growing influence of the Congress. Initially possessing a broadminded and reformist outlook, Syed Ahmed Khan later aligned himself with the colonial government. 
  • He encouraged Muslim masses to distance themselves from Congress, avoid political involvement, and began emphasizing separate interests for Hindus and Muslims.

Communalism in History Writing

Initially proposed by imperialist historians and later embraced by certain chauvinistic Indian historians, the communal interpretation of Indian history depicted the ancient phase as the Hindu era and the medieval phase, encompassing the rule of the Turks, Afghans, and Mughals, as the Muslim era. 

• Distortion of Medieval Conflicts: The conflicts among the ruling classes during the medieval phase were distorted and magnified, portraying them as Hindu-Muslim conflicts.
• Economic and Political Realities Overlooked: Historians neglect the fundamental reality that politics, whether in ancient or medieval times, in India, or elsewhere, is grounded in economic and political interests rather than religious considerations. 
  • For the British and communal historians, acknowledging the idea of a composite culture in India was inconvenient. 
• Hindu Communal Perspective: Simultaneously, the Hindu communal perspective on history aimed to convey that Indian society and culture reached ideal heights in the ancient period, experiencing a decline in the medieval period due to ‘Muslim’ rule. 
  • This perspective refused to recognize the development and enrichment of the Indian economy, technology, religion, philosophy, arts, literature, culture, and society during the medieval period.

Side-effects of Socio-religious Reform Movements

Reform movements like the Wahhabi Movement among Muslims and Shuddhi among Hindus, characterized by their militant nature, heightened the susceptibility of religion to communalism. At times, the reforms were perceived as a means of isolating one community from the influence of another religious community.

Conclusion

The rise and persistence of communalism in India reflect a complex interplay of historical, socio-economic, and political factors. Initially driven by a distorted sense of sectarian interests and exacerbated by colonial policies and socio-economic disparities, communalism evolved through various stages, from foundational ideologies to extreme antagonism. The legacy of communalism, deeply rooted in both historical distortions and contemporary political manipulations, continues to challenge India’s unity and societal harmony. Addressing this issue requires a nuanced understanding and concerted efforts to promote inclusivity and mutual respect.

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