British Conquest of Bengal: The Rise of Colonial Rule in India

In the early 1700s, Murshid Quli Khan took charge of Bengal, reigning until 1727. He was followed by his son-in-law, Shujauddin, until 1739. After that, for a year (1739-40), Sarfaraz Khan, an incapable son of Murshid Quli Khan, became the ruler; he was killed by Alivardi Khan. However, after a brief period under ineffective leadership, Alivardi Khan assumed control, discontinuing payments to the Mughal emperor. During his leadership, Bengal flourished. The population of Calcutta rose from 15,000 (in 1706) to 100,000 (in 1750) and other cities like Dacca and Murshidabad became highly populous.

Bengal on the Eve of the British Conquest

Wealth as the Main Attraction: Bengal was the Mughal Empire’s wealthiest region, covering current-day Bangladesh. Its Nawab also governed areas now known as Bihar and Odisha. Bengal’s exports to Europe included items like saltpeter, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, silk, cotton textiles, handicrafts, etc. 

• British Engagement in Bengal Trade: The English East India Company was significantly invested in Bengal trade, with around 60% of British Asian imports coming from there. 
  • The British regularly interacted with Bengal from the 1630s, setting up various establishments. 
• British Commercial Presence in Bengal: By the late 1690s,  the foundation of Calcutta marked the beginning of the British commercial establishment in Bengal. 
  • The Company annually paid the Mughal emperor Rs 3,000 (£ 350) for trading rights in Bengal, even though their exports exceeded £ 50,000.

• Political Stability: Unlike other parts of India that were disturbed by inter-border disputes, the Maratha invasions, Jat revolts, and external invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali had various challenges, but Bengal remained relatively unscathed. 

However, Bengal’s governors were not pleased with the benefits the English company had, seeing it as a fiscal loss. This dissatisfaction laid the groundwork for tension between the British commercial stakeholders and the Bengal administration. In less than a decade from 1757 to 1765 power shifted from the Nawabs of Bengal to the British following their victory over the Nawabs.

Alivardi Khan and the English 

Alivardi Khan’s Rise to Power in Bengal: In 1741, Alivardi Khan, who was then the Deputy Governor of Bihar, defeated and killed the Nawab of Bengal, Sarfaraz Khan. He solidified his role as the new leader of Bengal by offering a substantial payment to the Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah. 

• Defense Against the Marathas: During his 15-year reign, Alivardi Khan repelled the Marathas. 
  • British Fortifications: The English leveraged the Maratha disruptions in Bengal to get permission from the Nawab to fortify their Fort William settlement. 
• European Influence: Alivardi Khan later turned his attention to the Carnatic area, noticing the growing European influence there. This made him contemplate expelling the Europeans from Bengal. 
  • Succession of Siraj-ud-Daulah: However, he passed away in April 1756 and was succeeded by his grandson, Siraj-ud-Daulah, the child of Alivardi’s youngest daughter.

Challenges Before Siraj-ud-Daulah

• Internal Complexities: Siraj faced numerous challenges inherited from his grandfather. 
  • His adversaries included his cousin, the Nawab of Purnea, Shaukat Jang; a resentful aunt, Ghasiti Begum; who had no children, an insubordinate army commander, Mir Jafar; who was married to Alivardi Khan’s sister; and a concerned Hindu populace. 

Reign of Siraj-ud-Daulah The British East India Company was expanding its influence in Bengal and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Siraj grew deeply resentful of the Company’s growing politico-military influence in Bengal. He believed the Company was involved in a conspiracy against him with members from his court. His grievances against the Company were: They fortified Fort William without his knowledge or consent. They misused trade privileges, causing significant revenue loss in customs duties. The Company gave refuge to some officials like Krishnadas, who embezzled government funds. Siraj feared the Company’s growing power, especially after their success in the Carnatic wars. In response to the Company’s unauthorized military preparations at Fort William, Siraj captured Calcutta in June 1756 and temporarily renamed it Alinagar. Following the battle, Siraj-ud-Daulah was executed on 2 July 1757, orchestrated by Mir Jafar’s son, in alignment with the British. Siraj-ud-Daulah’s burial site is in Khushbagh, Murshidabad. His downfall marked the end of Bengali self-rule and the onset of British dominance in India.

• • His court also had a powerful faction including Jagat Seth, Omichand, Rai Ballabh, Rai Durlabh, and others who opposed him. 
• Own Personality and Company’s Gains: Added to these internal threats, there was also the rising commercial power of the English company. 
  • Siraj’s impulsive nature and lack of experience made him feel threatened, leading him to make hasty decisions. 
    • He defeated Shaukat Jang in battle and eliminated him, confiscated Ghasiti Begum’s wealth, confined her, and replaced Mir Jafar with Mir Madan. 
  • He also appointed Mohan Lal, a Kashmiri officer, as a chief administrator, who functioned similarly to a prime minister.

The Battle of Plassey 

Before the Battle: The Company’s officials overstepped their commercial privileges, undermining the nawab’s financial stability by fortifying Calcutta without his approval. They further tried to mislead him by offering refuge to Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh a political fugitive who absconded with valuables, in direct defiance of the nawab’s wishes. 

• Strategic Concerns over French-Bengali Alliance: Anticipating a possible alliance between Siraj and the French that could jeopardize their trade benefits in Bengal, the Company faced Siraj’s retaliation when he stormed and seized the English fort at Calcutta, highlighting the escalating strain between the two powers. 
• Clive’s Tactfulness: Upon Robert Clive’s strategic move from Madras to Calcutta, the English position in Bengal was significantly strengthened. 
• • In a shrewd maneuver, Clive formed a clandestine alliance with key figures within the nawab’s circle—Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth(an influential banker of Bengal), and Omichand who were disloyal to the nawab. 
• The Deal between the Conspirators: Under the deal, Mir Jafar was to be made the nawab who in turn would reward the Company for its services. The secret alliance of the Company with the conspirators further strengthened the English position. 
  • So the English victory in the Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) was decided before the battle was even fought. 
  • Black Hole Tragedy: The aftermath included the infamous ‘Black Hole Tragedy,’ where Siraj-ud-Daulah purportedly imprisoned 146 English captives in a very tiny room, leading to 123 fatalities due to asphyxiation. 
    • However, historians either do not believe this story or say that the number of victims must have been much smaller.
• British Triumph: Clive’s considerably outnumbered fifty-thousand troops managed to triumph over Siraj-ud-Daulah’s vast forces, thanks to the grave treachery that eroded the nawab’s defense from within. 
• Subsequently, Mir Jafar’s son, Miran, murdered Siraj-ud-Daulah. In the wake of the Battle of Plassey, the English command over the lucrative trade of Bengal was firmly established, marking a pivotal moment of colonial entrenchment in India.

Importance of the Battle of Plassey

The Battle of Plassey, fought on June 23, 1757, marked a pivotal moment in Indian history, with significant implications for the British East India Company and its control over the Indian subcontinent. 

• Establishment of British Dominance in Bengal: The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula. 
  • This victory established British control over Bengal, a region with immense economic and strategic importance.
• Economic Gains: Plassey and the subsequent events allowed the British to gain access to the vast resources of Bengal, which was one of the wealthiest and most industrially advanced provinces in India at the time. 
  • This influx of wealth provided the British with significant financial resources to fund their further expansion and trade in India.
• Monopoly on Trade: Before Plassey, the British East India Company was just one of several European trading companies in Bengal. 
  • However, after their victory, they virtually monopolized the trade and commerce of the region, which allowed them to accumulate even greater wealth and power.
• Political Control: Plassey marked the beginning of the East India Company’s transition from a trading company to a political power. 
  • They gradually extended their influence over Northern India, ultimately leading to the establishment of the British Raj.
• Geostrategic Significance: The Battle of Plassey put the British in a strategically advantageous position in India. 
  • With control over Bengal, they had a secure base from which they could expand their influence and authority in other parts of the subcontinent.
• Transformation of British Interests: Before Plassey, the British East India Company’s primary interest in India was trade. 
  • After Plassey, they shifted their focus toward political control, leading to the eventual colonization of India.
• Lasting Consequences: The battle had far-reaching and long-lasting consequences for India, as it paved the way for British colonial rule that would endure for nearly two centuries, significantly shaping the country’s history, culture, and institutions.

Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760

Mir Jafar’s Betrayal and Fall from Favor: Mir Jafar grew increasingly frustrated with Clive’s meddling and thus conspired with the Dutch in Chinsurah. 

• However, in November 1759, the Dutch were defeated by the English at the Battle of Bidara. 
• Due to Mir Jafar’s betrayal and his inability to settle Company debts, he fell out of favour with the English. 

• Succession Crisis and Treaty of 1760: Following the death of Miran, Jafar’s son, a struggle for the throne of Bengal ensued between Mir Kasim, Mir Jafar’s son-in-law, and Miran’s offspring. 
  • Vansittart, Calcutta’s new Governor, backed Mir Kasim’s claim, culminating in a  treaty signed in 1760 between Mir Kasim and the Company. 

The Treaty’s key Terms Included

• Mir Kasim’s concession of the Burdwan, Midnapur, and Chittagong districts to the Company.
• The Company was entitled to half the proceeds from Sylhet’s chunam trade.
• Mir Kasim pledged to clear any outstanding debts to the Company.
• Mir Kasim committed five lakh rupees to support the Company’s military campaigns in South India.
• The Company and Mir Kasim agreed to share mutual friends and foes.
• Inhabitants of the Nawab’s regions were prohibited from relocating to Company territories and vice-versa.

Under the pressure of the Company, Mir Jafar decided to resign in favor of Mir Kasim. A pension of Rs 1,500 per annum was fixed for Mir Jafar.

Steps taken by Mir Kasim

• Transfer of Capital: Mir Kasim, the ablest Nawab among Ali Vardi Khan’s successors, demonstrated his administrative prowess early on. He had previously served as the faujdar of Rangpur and Purniah. 
  • One of his notable administrative decisions was to transfer his capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr. This move had multiple purposes, including starting afresh in a less intrigue-ridden environment and distancing himself from the Company’s influence in Calcutta.
• Modernization of the Army: Mir Kasim aimed to modernize his army along European lines. To achieve this, he initiated the manufacturing of fire-locks and guns in Monghyr. 
• Expansionary Ambitions: The Nawab also harbored plans for expanding his territory northward at the expense of the Nepalese. 
  • This expansionist vision indicated his ambitions to consolidate and strengthen his rule in the region.
• Suppression of Rebellious Zamindars: Mir Kasim faced challenges from refractory zamindars in Bengal and Bihar who had defied the authority of the previous Nawab. He recognized the potential of these anti-state rebellions to become focal points for discontent in his state. Consequently, he took measures to suppress such uprisings and maintain his authority.
• Confrontation with Ramnarayan: Ramnarayan, the Deputy Subahdar of Bihar, posed a constant threat to Mir Kasim’s rule. He had never accepted Mir Jaffar’s accession to power and had sought English support for his defiance. 
  • Mir Kasim, with the support of Governor Vansittart, suspended and later dismissed Ramnarayan, even putting him to death due to his open defiance.
• Financial Reforms: Mir Kasim also focused on improving the state’s finances. He fined old officers who had misappropriated funds and introduced new cesses. 
  • He imposed an additional tax of 3/2 annas on the original crown rents and collected Khajiri-jama, which had been previously concealed.
• Administrative Prowess: Mir Kasim’s administrative achievements were notable. He excelled in unraveling governmental intricacies, especially in matters of finance.
  •  He settled private disputes, ensured regular payments to troops and his household, rewarded men of merit and learning, and managed his expenditures with a balance between parsimony and prodigality. 

The Battle of Buxar

Background

• Nawab’s Authority Undermined: The Company had thought that Mir Kasim would prove to be an ideal puppet for them. Yet, Mir Kasim did not meet these assumptions. Ram Narayan, Bihar’s deputy governor, consistently ignored the nawab’s demands to present Bihar’s revenue accounts. 
  • Mir Kasim vs. English Officials: Such blatant disregard upset Mir Kasim, but English officials in Patna backed Ram Narayan. 
    • The inappropriate use of the Company’s data (a duty-exemption trade permit) further strained relations between Mir Kasim and the English. 
  • Revenue Loss: This misapplication not only deprived Nawab of potential revenue but also put local traders at a disadvantage. 
• Misuse of Dastaks for Private Trade: Though the English company had official permission to conduct toll-free trade in Bengal, Company employees sought similar benefits for personal trades, even selling the data to Indian traders for profit. 
  • They also forcefully sourced goods at lower prices, contradicting the intent behind duty-free commerce. 

The Nawab-Company tussle over transit duty led to the outbreak of wars between the English and Mir Kasim in 1763. The English gained successive victories at Katwah, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty and Munger. Mir Kasim fled to Awadh (or Oudh) and formed a confederacy with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daulah, and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, to recover Bengal from the English.

Course of the Battle

• On October 22, 1764: Major Hector Munro led the English forces to victory against the joint troops of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah Alam II at Buxar. 
  • This swift and decisive campaign against Mir Kasim was significant since the English defeated not just the Nawab of Bengal but also India’s Mughal Emperor. 
• English Victory: This triumph positioned the English as a dominant force in North India, hinting at potential future dominance.
• Post-War: Mir Jafar was reinstated as Nawab in 1763 due to rising tensions between Mir Kasim and the Company, conceded the districts of Midnapore, Burdwan, and Chittagong to the English to support their army. 
• They also obtained near duty-free trading rights in Bengal, with a minor 2% salt tax. 
  • Upon Mir Jafar’s death, his young son, Najimud-daula, was named nawab, but the true governing power resided with the naib-subahdar, a position the English could control.

The Treaty of Allahabad

In August 1765, Robert Clive finalized two crucial agreements in Allahabad one with the Nawab of Awadh and another with the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II.

Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula agreed to:

• Hand over Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam II;
• Pay Rs 50 lakh to the Company as compensation for the war;
• Restore the estate to Balwant Singh, the landowner of Banaras.

On the other hand, Shah Alam II agreed to:

• Reside at Allahabad, to be ceded to him by the Nawab of Awadh, under the Company’s protection;
• Issue a Farman giving the revenue rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company in exchange for a yearly sum of Rs 26 lakh.
• allocate Rs 53 lakh to the Company for governance responsibilities, including military defense, policing, and judicial duties in those regions.

Clive refrained from taking over Awadh to avoid the responsibility of shielding a vast territorial border from potential Afghan and Maratha threats. This treaty solidified the Nawab as a trusted ally of the Company, positioning Awadh as a protective barrier. 

Conclusion

The British takeover of Bengal marked a significant moment in Indian history, laying the groundwork for British colonial domination in the region. The beginning of British dominance was signaled by the Battle of Plassey in 1757 when Bengal’s rulers were defeated due to strategic alliances and internal disputes. Successive wins and agreements, such as the Treaty of Allahabad, solidified British domination, aiding in their economic and political growth. This victory transformed the future of the area, introducing almost two hundred years of British dominance.

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