The British Conquest of Punjab: From Ranjit Singh to the Anglo-Sikh Wars

Following the assassination of the final Sikh guru, Guru Gobind Singh, a faction of Sikhs led by Banda Bahadur initiated an insurrection against the Mughal authority during Bahadur Shah’s reign. In 1715, Banda Bahadur was defeated by Farrukhsiyar and was executed in 1716. Consequently, the Sikh community found itself without leadership and subsequently splintered into two factions. The first was the Bandai (Liberal) and the second was the Tat Khalsa (Orthodox). This division amongst the adherents concluded in 1721 through the efforts of Bhai Mani Singh. 

Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs

Dal Khalsa under Kapur Singh Faizullapuria: Later on, in 1784, Kapur Singh Faizullapuria reorganized the Sikhs into the Dal Khalsa, aiming to unify the Sikh followers in political, cultural, and economic spheres. The Khalsa collective was divided into two factions : 

• The Budha Dal, comprising the elder veterans, and 
• The Taruna Dal, composed of the younger members.
• Political Turmoil in Punjab: The weakening of the Mughal empire, coupled with the incursions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, resulted in widespread turmoil and disorder in Punjab. 
• • These tumultuous political circumstances provided the structured Dal Khalsa with the opportunity to strengthen their position. 
• Misls: The Sikhs were organized into misls, which were military fraternities operating on democratic principles. The term ‘misl’ originates from Arabic, signifying ‘equal’ or ‘similar.’ 
  • It can also be interpreted as ‘state.‘ Gurumatta Sangh, which was primarily a political, social, and economic system, served as the misl’s central administrator. 
  • Between 1763 and 1773, numerous misls began to dominate the Punjab area under the governance of Sikh leaders, stretching from Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west, and from the mountainous territories in the north down to Multan in the south.
  • There were 12 significant misls at the time of Ranjit Singh’s birth viz. Ahluwaliya, Bhangi, Dallewalia, Faizullapuria, Kanhaiya, Krorasinghia, Nakkai, Nishaniya, Phulakiya, Ramgarhiya Sukharchakiya, and Shaheed.

• Sukerchakiya Misl and Ranjit Singh: Ranjit Singh was the son of Sukarchakiya misl chieftain Mahan Singh. Ranjit Singh was only 12 years old when Mahan Singh died. However, Ranjit Singh showed early political insight. 
  • By the end of the 18th century, all of the great misls (save Sukarchakiya) had disintegrated. 

• Rise of Ranjit Singh and Civil War in Afghanistan: Afghanistan was also involved in a civil war as a result of a power struggle that lasted three decades. 
  • These occurrences in adjacent regions were extensively utilized by Ranjit Singh, who maintained a merciless policy of ‘blood and iron’ to carve out a kingdom in central Punjab for himself. 
  • Zaman Shah, the monarch of Afghanistan, nominated Ranjit Singh as administrator of Lahore in 1799. 
  • In 1805, Ranjit Singh gained Jammu and Amritsar and brought Punjab’s political capital (Lahore) and religious capital (Amritsar) under his control. He also kept strong relations with the Dogras and the Nepalese, enlisting them in his army.

Ranjit Singh and the English

Concerns Over Franco-Russian Invasion:  The English were concerned about the possibility of a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India via the land route. Therefore, Lord Minto dispatched Charles Metcalfe to Lahore in 1807. 

• Failed Alliance Negotiations: Ranjit Singh agreed to Metcalfe’s proposal for an offensive and defensive alliance on the condition that the English remain neutral in the event of a Sikh-Afghan conflict and recognized Ranjit Singh as the sovereign of the entire Punjab, including the Malwa (cis-Sutlej) regions. However, the negotiations failed. 
• Treaty of Amritsar (1809): Ranjit Singh decided to sign the Treaty of Amritsar (April 25, 1809) with the Company amid a new political scenario in which the Napoleonic threat had diminished and the English had become more dominant.

Significance of Treaty of Amritsar

The Treaty of Amritsar held both immediate and long-term significance. 

• Sutlej River as the Boundary: It thwarted Ranjit Singh’s highly prized goal of expanding his sovereignty over all Sikh domains by establishing the Sutlej River as the frontier between his lands and those of the Company.
• Western Expansion and Conquests: Ranjit Singh channeled his ambition westward, successfully annexing Multan in 1818, Kashmir in 1819, and Peshawar in 1834.
• Tripartite Treaty: By June 1838, political pressures necessitated that Ranjit Singh enter into the Tripartite Treaty with the English, but still, he denied the British military access through his lands for an assault on Dost Mohammad, the Afghan Amir.

The nature of Raja Ranjit Singh’s ties with the British Company from 1809 to 1839 underscores his relatively inferior position. Despite being aware of this disadvantage, he refrained from forming any alliances with other Indian rulers or pursuing a diplomatic balance of power. With Ranjit Singh’s passing in June 1839, the erosion of his empire was set in motion.

Punjab after Ranjit Singh

Beginning of Court Factions and Opportunity for British

• Succession Crisis: Upon the demise of Ranjit Singh, his sole legitimate heir, Kharak Singh, assumed power but proved to be ineffective. His rule was short-lived, and his tenure was marked by intensifying court factions.
  • The sudden passing of Kharak Singh in 1839, followed by the unforeseen demise of his son, Prince Nav Nihal Singh plunged Punjab into chaos.
• Decline in Military Prowess: The military, once the bastion of the Sikh empire, was not as formidable as it once seemed. 
  • Several of Ranjit Singh’s distinguished commanders—Mokham Chand, Dewan Chand, Hari Singh Nalwa, and Ram Dayal—had already passed away. 
  • Moreover, discontent was increasing within the ranks due to irregularity of payment. The appointment of incompetent officers led to a breakdown of order. 
• British Troop Passage and Economic Impact: The Lahore administration maintained its cordial stance with the British Company, allowing their troops passage through its territory—initially during their retreat from Afghanistan, and later during their campaign to retaliate for earlier losses. 
  • These movements stirred unrest and disrupted the economic stability of Punjab.
  • This disorder gave rise to various schemes among factions seeking to seize Lahore’s throne, presenting the British with a prime opportunity for intervention. 
• Rani Jindal and Daleep Singh: Following the unexpected death of Nav Nihal Singh, Sher Singh, another son of Ranjit Singh, ascended to the throne, but he was murdered by the end of 1843. 
• Subsequently, Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh, was declared Maharaja, with Rani Jindan serving as the regent and Hira Singh Dogra taking the role of wazir. 
• Hira Singh became entangled in court politics and was assassinated in 1844. The new wazir, Jawahar Singh, brother of Rani Jindan, soon fell out of favor with the military and was overthrown and executed in 1845. 
• In 1845, Lal Singh, a close associate of Rani Jindan, managed to gain the army’s allegiance and secured the position of wazir, while Teja Singh was named the military commander.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)

The genesis of the first Anglo-Sikh war could be traced back by the action of  Sikh forces crossing the Sutlej River on December 11, 1845. This movement was interpreted as a hostile act, granting the British a pretext to commence hostilities.

However, there were several other factors such as:

• The disorder ensuing from Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s demise within the Lahore dominion caused a fierce competition for control between the Lahore court and the influential, autonomous Sikh military.
• Mistrust within the Sikh military was stoked by British military endeavors that led to the absorption of Gwalior and Sindh in 1841, as well as the military operations in Afghanistan in 1842.
• Strategic Military Presence: The increase in the number of English troops stationed near the Lahore kingdom’s frontier.

Course of War

• Initial Troop Strength and Leadership: The British side had 20,000 to 30,000 troops when the conflict began in December 1845, while the Sikhs had roughly 50,000 men under the general direction of Lal Singh. 
  • Series of Defeats and Betrayal: However, the Sikhs were defeated five times in a row due to the treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh at Mudki (December 18, 1845), Ferozeshah (December 21-22, 1845), Buddelwal, Aliwal (January 28, 1846), and Sobraon (February 10, 1846). 
• Lahore surrendered to British forces without a struggle on February 20, 1846.

Treaty of Lahore (March 8, 1846)

The conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War coerced the Sikh leadership into acceding to a degrading agreement on March 8, 1846. The central terms of the Treaty of Lahore included:

• The imposition of a war indemnity exceeding 1 crore rupees payable to the British.
• Annexation of the Jalandhar Doab, the tract between the rivers Beas and Sutlej, to the British East India Company’s holdings.
  • The establishment of a British residency at Lahore under Henry Lawrence.
  • A reduction in the numbers of the Sikh military forces.
• Recognition of Daleep Singh as sovereign under the regency of Rani Jindan with Lal Singh serving as wazir.
• As the Sikhs could not fully discharge the war indemnity, the region of Kashmir, incorporating Jammu, was sold to Gulab Singh, who was obliged to remunerate the British Company with 75 lakh rupees for it. 
  • This transaction was ratified through a separate treaty on March 16, 1846.

Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1946)

• The Sikhs were not happy with the Treaty of Lahore, especially over the transfer of Kashmir to Gulab Singh. They resorted to rebellion which prompted the treaty of Bhairowal. The treaty was signed in December 1846. 
• As per the conditions outlined in this treaty, Rani Jindan was deposed from her position as regent, and a council of regency was established for the governance of Punjab. 
  • The council was composed of eight Sikh sardars who were under the leadership of the English Resident, Henry Lawrence.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

Factors that led to Second Anglo-Sikh War

• Treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal: The outcome of the first Anglo-Sikh War and the terms outlined in the treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal inflicted a significant sense of humiliation onto the Sikh community. 
  • The Sikhs’ wrath was further exacerbated by the inhumane treatment inflicted upon Rani Jindan, who was sent to Benares under the guise of being a pensioner.
• Revolt in Multan: The governor of Multan, Mulraj, was replaced with a Sikh governor over the issue of an increase in annual revenue. 
  • Mulraj launched a revolution and perpetrated the assassination of two English officers who were in the company of the newly appointed governor. 
• Sher Singh’s Defection: Sher Singh was sent to Multan with the purpose of quelling the rebellion, but he joined himself with Mulraj, resulting in a widespread insurrection in the region of Multan. 
  • This move by Sher Singh is considered the immediate cause of the war and provided Lord Dalhousie, who had strong expansionist beliefs, an opportunity to fully annex Punjab.

Course of War

Lord Dalhousie advanced into Punjab, where three pivotal engagements were fought leading to Punjab’s eventual absorption into the British Empire. These battles were:

• The clash at Ramnagar was led by Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief of the Company.
• The Battle of Chillianwala in January 1849.
• The decisive Battle of Gujarat (municipality beside Jhelum river) on February 21, 1849; following this, the Sikh forces capitulated at Rawalpindi, and their Afghan associates were expelled from Indian territory. 

Impact of War

• The war culminated in:
  • Surrender of Sikh troops and Sher Singh in 1849.
  • The full incorporation of Punjab into the British domain. 
  • The Earl of Dalhousie received commendation from the British Parliament and ascended the nobility ranks as Marquess.
  • The establishment of a three-member board to administer Punjab, composed of the Lawrence siblings (Henry and John) and Charles Mansel.

• By 1853, the board was disbanded, and Punjab was designated under the jurisdiction of a chief commissioner, with John Lawrence becoming the first chief commissioner.

Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars

Mutual Respect in Martial Prowess: The Anglo-Sikh clashes cultivated a reciprocal admiration for the martial capabilities of the adversaries. 

• From Adversaries to Allies: The Sikhs would later align with the British during the 1857 Revolt and persist as loyal allies through numerous other military campaigns, sustaining this allegiance until India attained independence in 1947.

Conclusion

The British invasion of Punjab signified a significant change in the area’s historical trajectory. Ranjit Singh’s early strategic skills initially posed a challenge to British ambitions, but internal conflict and the weakening of the Sikh military later left Punjab exposed. The Anglo-Sikh Wars brought about significant changes in the political scene, resulting in Punjab being taken over by the British Empire. This era laid the foundation for upcoming partnerships and disputes, defining Punjab’s position in British India and further afield.

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