British India and Its Neighbors: Conflicts, Treaties and the Expansion of Influence

The British Empire’s push to strengthen their control over administrative and political structures brought them into confrontations with states bordering India. The 19th-century expansion of the British Empire in India led to complex interactions with neighboring states like Bhutan, Nepal, Burma, and Tibet. Driven by territorial ambitions and economic interests, these encounters often escalated into conflicts, resulting in treaties that expanded British influence while igniting resistance and nationalist movements across South Asia.

Anglo-Bhutanese Relation

Post-Assam Establishment: The British establishment in Assam in 1826 led to their involvement with the Kingdom of Bhutan. Multiple factors caused friction between the British and Bhutan. 

• Key Sources of Conflict: Major among them were repeated incursions by the Bhutanese into bordering lands of Assam and Bengal, unfavorable treatment of the emissary sent by Elgin in 1863–64, and a coercive treaty that compelled the British to relinquish control of strategic passes into Assam. 
• British Response: Such conditions provoked the British to annex these passes and halt the payments previously made to Bhutan. 

Anglo Bhutanese War

• The Anglo-Bhutan War also known as Duar Conflict resulted in the defeat of Bhutanese army. A peace treaty was signed between both parties in 1865 known as the “Pact of Sinchula”. 
• Under the terms of the treaty, Bhutan ceded authority over territories in the Assam Duars and Bengal Duars to the British, along with approximately 80,000 square kilometers of Dewangiri (Deothang), in return for a yearly payment of 50,000 rupees.

Anglo-Nepalese Relations

Emergence of British-Gorkha Frontiers: The Gorkhas took control of Nepal from the heirs of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon in 1760. They started to extend their territory beyond the mountain ranges. 

• For them it was easy to expand southwards then towards north as in the northern ranges they faced robust defenses by the Chinese. 
• The English acquisition of Gorakhpur in 1801 brought them closer to the frontiers of Gorkhas. 
• Tensions Over Trade and Territory: The English were looking to establish economic ties with Tibet, however, they were denied right of passage by Gorkhas who were not interested in allowing any foreign presence on their soil. 
• • There were also border demarcation issues between Gorkhas and the British.

Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816)

• Conquest of the Terais of Butwal and Sheoraj by the King of Nepal, Bhimsen Thapa (1813–23), infuriated the British Governor-General, Lord Hastings. He gave the Army the order to attack Nepal in 1814, sparking the start of the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–1816. 
• During the two years that the Anglo-Nepalese conflict lasted, numerous battles took place. A few notable battles from the Anglo-Nepalese War are listed below:
  • The Nalapani Battle
  • The Jaithak Battle
  • The Malaon Battle
• In the Battle of Malaon in 1816, Amar Singh Thapa, the leader of the Nepali military as well as the commander of the Gorkha Army, was killed. Consequently, the Anglo-Nepalese War was lost by the Gorkhas and was ultimately resolved in 1816 with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli.
• Treaty of Sagauli: Treaty of Sagauli proved beneficial to the British as under the treaty:
  • Nepal allowed the presence of a British envoy.
  • Nepal surrendered the regions of Garhwal and Kumaon and relinquished its rights to Terai.
  • Nepal receded from Sikkim.

Impact of the Treaty:

• The British domain now extended to the Himalayas.
• They gained improved commercial routes with Central Asia.
• They acquired locations for mountain resorts, including Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainital.
• A considerable number of Gorkhas enlisted in the British Indian Army.

Anglo-Burmese Relations

The foundation of conflict between Burma and the British lay in their expansionist tendencies. Burma as a sovereign nation at the start of the nineteenth century desired to extend westward. British expansionism was fueled by Burma’s forests, its market for British goods, and the need to stop French ambitions in Burma and the rest of Southeast Asia. This led to three Anglo-Burmese Wars, and in the end, Burma was added to British India in 1885.

The First Anglo-Burma War (1824–26):

• The first war with Burma was fought in the early nineteenth century, when Burmese expansion westwards and occupation of Arakan and Manipur, as well as the threat to Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley, caused persistent friction along the ill-defined border between Bengal and Burma.
•  In May 1824, British expeditionary forces took Rangoon and advanced to within 72 kilometers of the capital, Ava.
• Treaty of Yandaboo(1826): The Treaty of Yandabo established peace in 1826, requiring the Government of Burma to:
  • Pay one crore rupees in war compensation
  • Cede its coastal provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim 
  • Abandon claims on Assam, Cachar, and Jaintia 
  • Recognize Manipur as an independent state
  • Negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain 
  • Accept a British resident at Ava while posting a Burmese envoy at Calcutta.

The Second Anglo- Burma War (1852–1853)

• British Imperialism and Economic Ambitions: The second was due to British commercial necessity and Lord Dalhousie’s imperialist policy. 
  • The British merchants were eager to get upper Burma’s timber resources and to expand their presence in the Burmese market. 
• Occupation of Pegu: This time, the British occupied Pegu, Burma’s last remaining coastline province. Before complete British control of lower Burma could be established, the English faced an intensive guerilla struggle impeding their progress and needed to be crushed. 

The Third Anglo-Burma War (1885)

• Thibaw’s Hostility: After Burmese King Bhindan died, his son Thibaw ascended to the throne. Thibaw was an outspoken opponent of the British from the start. 
• Tensions with British Business Interests: The British businessmen in Rangoon and southern Burma had issues with the treatment they were getting from Thibaw’s administration. 
  • At the same time, he was negotiating commercial accords with competitor countries France, Germany, and Italy. 
• Alliance with French Interests: Also, when the  British conflicted with the French in Niger, Egypt, and Madagascar, Thibaw agreed with the French to build a rail link from Mandalay to French territory. 
•  Final Spark: Last straw for the British was when Thibaw levied humiliating penalties on a British timber company. Thus, in 1885, Dufferin authorized the invasion and final annexation of upper Burma.

After the First World War, the British faced a powerful guerrilla revolt throughout Burma, as well as a nationalist movement. Burmese nationalists banded together with the Indian National Congress. Burma was separated from India in 1935 to sever this bond. The Burmese nationalist movement grew stronger under U Aung San during WWII, eventually leading to Burma’s independence on January 4, 1948.

Anglo-Tibetan Relations

Theocratic Rule in Tibet: Tibet was governed by a theocratic system led by Buddhist lamas, under nominal Chinese sovereignty. 

• Previous British attempts to foster amicable and trade relationships with Tibet were unsuccessful, leading to a stalemate by the time Curzon assumed office in India. 
• Growing Russian Influence: While the Chinese hold over Tibet was nominal, the Russian presence in Lhasa was on the rise, and there were reports of Russian military supplies entering Tibet. 
• Curzon’s Response: Alarmed by this, Curzon dispatched a small Gorkha unit led by Colonel Younghusband on a mission to Tibet to compel the Tibetan leadership to engage in negotiations. 
• Tibetan Resistance: The Tibetans, opting for non-violent resistance, declined to negotiate. Younghusband advanced into Lhasa in August 1904 as the Dalai Lama escaped.

• Treaty of Lhasa (1904): Younghusband imposed conditions on the Tibetan representatives, which included:
  • Tibet pays a compensation of 75 lakh rupees over 75 years at an annual rate of one lakh rupees.
  • As a guarantee for this payment, the Indian government would control the Chumbi Valley, nestled between Bhutan and Sikkim, for 75 years
  • Tibet was to recognize Sikkim’s borders
  • Trade markets would be established at Yatung, Gyantse, and Gartok.
• Tibet’s Sovereignty and British Influence: Tibet would refuse any foreign state concessions for the construction of railways, roads, telegraphs, etc., granting Britain a degree of influence over Tibet’s foreign affairs.
  • Amendment of Treaty Terms: Subsequently, at the behest of the Secretary of State and in adherence to commitments made to Russia, the treaty was amended to reduce the indemnity to Rs 25 lakh and to arrange for the withdrawal from the Chumbi Valley after three years (the valley was ultimately vacated in January 1908).
• Significance: Ultimately, China was the only party to benefit from the entire situation because the Anglo-Russian convention of 1907 stipulated that both major nations would engage with Tibet only through Chinese intermediation. 
  • However, Curzon’s strategy effectively neutralized Russian manoeuvres in Tibet.

Conclusion  

The British Empire’s expansion in India significantly impacted relations with neighboring countries. Through military conflicts and treaties, the British established dominance over Bhutan, Nepal, Burma, and Tibet. These interactions were driven by economic interests, territorial ambitions, and strategic concerns. While the British secured new territories and trade routes, their aggressive policies also fostered long-term resistance and nationalist movements in these regions, shaping the political landscape of South Asia in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

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