Understanding the Causes of the 1857 Revolt

The greased cartridge scandal and military grievances have been emphasized by Anglo-Indian historians as the two main factors that contributed to the Great Rebellion of 1857. However, contemporary historians in India have demonstrated that “the greased cartridge” was not the sole cause, nor even the most significant one. 

• Deeper roots can be discovered in the history of the 100 years of British rule, from the Battle of Plassey (June 1757) to Mangal Pandey’s uprising on March 29, 1857, following his murder of an English adjutant. 
  • The greased cartridge and the troops’ mutiny were just the matchsticks that burst the pile of combustible material that had formed due to several factors such as political, social, religious, and economic. 

Economic Causes

The policies of the East India Company had a detrimental impact on traditional Indian society. 

• Impoverishment of Peasantry: The peasantry suffered under heavy taxation and an unpopular revenue system, leading many to seek loans from moneylenders and traders at exorbitant interest rates. 
  • This often resulted in eviction from their land due to unpaid debts, with moneylenders and traders emerging as the new landlords. 
  • This led to a persistent issue of landless peasantry and rural indebtedness that continues to affect Indian society.
• Ruining of Traditional Artisans: Artisans and handicraft workers faced hardship as the annexation of Indian states by the Company deprived them of their primary patrons—the native rulers and nobles. 
  • Additionally, British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts and favoured British-made goods, leaving skilled Indian craftsmen struggling to find alternative employment opportunities. 
• Setback to Trade And Industries: The Indian trade and merchant class suffered due to high tariff duties on Indian-made goods, while British goods enjoyed low tariffs upon entry into India. 
  • This led to the near-collapse of textile exports from India by the mid-nineteenth century. 
    • The refusal to protect Indian industries from British competition further exacerbated the decline of Indian manufacturing.
• Disillusioned Zamindars: The older system of zamindari also disintegrated. Zamindars, the traditional landed aristocracy, often saw their land rights forfeited through administrative actions like quo warranto, resulting in a loss of status within villages. 
  • In Awadh, a region central to the revolt, 21,000 taluqdars had their estates confiscated, leaving them without a source of income and facing destitution. 
    • These dispossessed taluqdars seized the opportunity presented by the sepoy revolt to oppose the British and attempt to regain their lost estates. 
  • The decline of Indian industry placed added pressure on agriculture and land, leading to widespread impoverishment across the country.

Political Causes

British Policy of expansion: The East India Company pursued an aggressive policy of expansion, often breaking pledges and promises. This led to widespread contempt for the Company and a loss of political prestige. 

• Policies like ‘Effective Control’, ‘Subsidiary Alliance’, and ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ raised suspicion among ruling princes across India. Hindu princes were denied their rightful succession. 

• Fall Of Mughals: The Mughals, once a powerful dynasty, were further humiliated when, upon Prince Faqiruddin’s death in 1856, Lord Canning declared that the next prince in line would have to relinquish the regal title and the ancestral Mughal palaces, in addition to the conditions agreed upon by Prince Faqiruddin. 
  • This collapse of rulers, who constituted the former aristocracy, also had negative repercussions on segments of Indian society that depended on cultural and religious pursuits for their livelihoods.

• Impact of the British policy of “Pax Britannica”:  It impacted various groups in India in the decades leading up to 1857. “Pax Britannica” refers to the period of relative peace and stability enforced by British imperial power. 
  • Impact on Native Armies and Livelihoods: This policy resulted in the disbanding of groups like the Pindaris, Thugs, and irregular soldiers who had traditionally formed native armies. 
    • These groups were known for living off plunder, and with their means of livelihood taken away by the British, they were left without a source of income. 
  • Emergence of Anti-Social Elements and Rebellion: This situation led them to become a nucleus of anti-social elements in different regions. By 1857, the disaffected members of these disbanded groups had joined the ranks of the rebels in the uprising against British rule. 
  • Pax Britannica’s Role: This suggests that the policy of “Pax Britannica” indirectly contributed to the discontent and rebellion that erupted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, as individuals who had lost their traditional livelihood turned to rebellion as a means of resistance against British rule.

Administrative Causes

The administration of the East India Company was plagued by widespread corruption, particularly among the police, lower-ranking officials, and lower-level law courts. 

• Rampant Corruption: This pervasive corruption was a significant source of discontent among the Indian population. 
  • Many historians argue that the corruption we observe in India today can be traced back to the legacy of the Company’s rule. 
• Unequal Treatment of Indians: Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a foreign and unfamiliar appearance to Indians, creating a sense of absentee sovereignty, where the ruling authority seemed distant and disconnected from the local population. 
  • This contributed to a feeling of alienation and detachment among the Indian populace.
• Marginalization of Indian Aristocracy in Governance and Military: The Indian aristocracy was also deprived of power and position. 
  • The highest position an Indian could have in the armed forces was Subedar, which paid Rs. 60 or Rs. 70 a month, and Sar Amin, which paid Rs. 500 a month in the civil service. Promotional opportunities were few. 
  • The Indians believed that the British intended to make them into “wood-hewers and water-drawers.”
• Inefficient Administration and Land Revenue Policies: The administrative machinery of the East India Company was ‘inefficient and insufficient’. 
  • Land Revenue Policy and Military Intervention: The land revenue policy, in particular, was highly unpopular. Many districts in newly annexed territories were in a state of constant revolt, requiring military intervention for revenue collection.
    • In some areas, a disproportionate number of horsemen were allocated for revenue collection compared to those assigned to police duties. 
      • Ex: In the district of Panipat, 136 horsemen were maintained for the collection of land revenue, while only 22 were employed for the performance of police duties. At the outbreak of the Rebellion, 
  • Economic Hardship from Reforms: Sir Henry Lawrence is reported to have remarked: “It was the Jackson, the John Lawrence, the Thomason, the Edmonstones who brought India to this. 
    • The English administration eliminated middlemen in land revenue settlements, establishing direct contact with peasants. 
    • This led to the removal of hereditary landlords and tax collectors, causing economic hardship. 
• Impact of the Inam Commission and New Revenue Policies: The Inam Commission in Bombay confiscated thousands of estates, exacerbating poverty among the aristocracy without benefiting the peasantry.
  • Economic Hardships for Peasants: The new revenue policies placed heavy burdens on the peasants, who often fell victim to unscrupulous moneylenders. 
  • Impact on Taluqdars of Oudh: The taluqdars of Oudh were particularly affected, losing a significant portion of their villages and revenue. 
  • Ruthless Implementation of the Thomasonian System: The Thomasonian system’s ruthless implementation is exemplified by the resumption of revenue from free villages dedicated to the temple Lakshmi in Jhansi.

• Economic Exploitation and Decline of Indian Trade and Industry under British Rule: British economic policies in India worked against the interests of Indian trade and industry.
  • Decline of Indian Manufacturing and Handicrafts: Using its political clout, the East India Company destroyed Indian manufacturing and handicrafts, turning it into a tool of a foreign exploitative regime. 
    • The astute observer Karl Marx said, rather fittingly, in a letter from 1853: “The Indian handloom was broken up and the spinning wheel was destroyed by the British interloper. 
  • Economic Manipulation and Cotton Trade: England started by removing Indian cotton from the European market, added a twist to Hindustan and ultimately overflowed the cotton-producing nation itself with cotton.
    • The ruination of Indian industry increased the pressure on agriculture and land, which lopsided development in turn resulted in the pauperization of the country in general.

Socio-Religious Causes 

The British administration in India displayed racial biases and a sense of superiority towards the native Indian population. This attitude was marked by a belief in the inherent superiority of the British over the Indians. 

• Resistance to Socio-Religious Reforms: Efforts at socio-religious reform, such as the abolition of sati (the practice of widow burning), support for widow remarriage, and the promotion of women’s education, were met with resistance from a significant portion of the population. 
  • They perceived these initiatives as unwarranted interference in the social and religious domains of Indian society by outsiders.
• Discrimination and Injustice Under Colonial Rule: There were many instances of discrimination and injustice perpetrated by European officers and soldiers in India during the colonial period. 
  • They engaged in criminal assaults on Indians during hunting expeditions, and when tried, were often acquitted or given light punishments by European juries. 
    • This unequal treatment deeply upset the Indian population.
• Christian Missionary Influence and Conversion Agenda: The activities of Christian missionaries, who often accompanied British presence in India, were viewed with suspicion by many Indians. 
  • Religious Conversion Agenda: Furthermore, the English had a clear agenda of converting Indians to Christianity, as evidenced by statements from influential figures like Mr. Mangles and Major Edwards. 
  • Promotion of Christianity: They saw the spread of Christianity as a fundamental goal of English rule in India. 
    • Superior officers actively pressured sepoys and civilians to embrace Christianity, offering promotions as incentives. 
  • Government Support for Missionary Work: Missionaries were supported by the government, with facilities provided for their work, including the establishment of printing presses. 
• Denigration of Traditional Religious Beliefs: Idolatry and Hindu beliefs were denigrated, and missionaries worked to undermine traditional Indian religious practices. 
  • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan even mentioned that there was a widespread belief that the government directly supported and maintained missionaries. 
  • Lord Shaftesbury, representing Evangelical opinion, believed that the failure to Christianize India was the root cause of the existing issues and tensions.
• Government Policies Perceived as Religious Encroachment: Fears were exacerbated by the government’s decisions to impose taxes on lands belonging to mosques and temples. 
  • Religious Disabilities Act of 1856, which altered Hindu customs, added to the apprehension. 
    • Ex: Act stipulated that changing one’s religion did not disqualify a son from inheriting his father’s property, even if the father practised a different faith. 
  • These measures were perceived as an encroachment on established religious and social practices, heightening the sense of cultural threat felt by many Indians.

Impact of External Events

External Challenges Faced by the British During the 1857 Revolt: The 1857 revolt in India occurred at a time when the British were facing significant setbacks in external conflicts. 

• Impact of British Defeats in the First Afghan War, Punjab Wars, and Crimean Wars: The First Afghan War (1838-42), the Punjab Wars (1845-49), and the Crimean Wars (1854-56) all resulted in substantial losses for the British. 
  • Impact on British Perception and Morale: These defeats had notable psychological effects. They eroded the perception of British invincibility, leading people to believe that the British were not as formidable as previously thought and that they could indeed be defeated. 

This likely bolstered the confidence and determination of those involved in the 1857 revolt, as they saw an opportunity to challenge British dominance.

Resentment Among Sepoys

The conditions of service in the East India Company’s Army and cantonments clashed with the religious beliefs and biases of the sepoys. 

• Religious Interference and Sectarian Concerns: Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks, along with rumors of chaplains engaging in proselytizing activities (often supported by Indian funds), were seen by the conservative sepoys as interference in their religious matters. 
  • For devout Hindus at the time, crossing the seas was associated with loss of caste. 
• General Service Enlistment Act and its fallout: In 1856, Lord Canning’s government enacted the General Service Enlistment Act, requiring all future recruits to the Bengal Army to pledge to serve wherever the government deemed necessary. This move was met with resentment.
• Pay Disparities and Grievances over Foreign Service Allowance: Indian sepoys were also discontented with their pay in comparison to their British counterparts.
  • A more immediate source of dissatisfaction was the decision to deny them a foreign service allowance (Bhatta) when stationed in Sindh or Punjab. 
    • The annexation of Awadh, the homeland of many sepoys, further fueled their anger. 
• Racial Discrimination and Unequal Treatment of Indian Sepoys: The Indian sepoy felt subordinate and experienced racial discrimination, as well as disparities in matters of promotion and privileges. 
  • Their discontent extended beyond military matters, reflecting a broader disillusionment and opposition to British rule.
• Widespread Discontent and Historical Precedents of Revolt: The sepoy, essentially a “peasant in uniform,” shared the consciousness of the rural population. 
  • As S. Gopal notes, “The Army voiced grievances other than its own; and the movement spread beyond the Army.”
  • Additionally, there was a history of revolts within the British Indian Army, with notable incidents in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806), Barrackpore (1825), and during the Afghan Wars (1838-42), among others.

Conclusion 

The 1857 Rebellion was not just caused by the issue of greased cartridges, but also marked the end of a century of increasing dissatisfaction under British colonial rule. Economic difficulties, political dissatisfaction, corrupt administration, and socio-religious tensions contributed to an unstable atmosphere. The rebellion highlighted growing discontent with British policies, both immediate and persistent, revealing a complex combination of factors that fueled India’s fight for independence and justice.

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