Causes Behind the Rise of Reform Movements in 19th Century India

Apart from the Brahmo Samaj, which has branches in several parts of the country, the Paramahansa Mandali and the Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and the Arya Samaj in Punjab and North India were some of the prominent movements among the Hindus. There were several other regional and caste movements like the Kayastha Sabha in Uttar Pradesh and the Sarin Sabha in Punjab. With the Satya Sodhak Samaj in Maharashtra and the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Sabha in Kerala, the backward castes also began the process of reformation. The Aligarh and Ahmadiyya movements, the Singh Sabha, and the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha, respectively, represented the reformist spirit among Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsees. Their general perspectives were strikingly similar, even though they were limited to a single religion and were regional in scope and content. They were both religious and regional expressions of a common Consciousness.

Causes 

Religious Superstitions and Social Stagnation: During the nineteenth century, Indian society was ensnared in a destructive cycle of religious superstitions and social backwardness. 

• Max Weber observed that Hinduism had devolved into a mixture of magic, animism, and irrational beliefs. 
• Rise of Superstition and the Power of Priests: Practices like animal sacrifice and physical torment had replaced genuine worship of the divine. 
• • Priests held an immense and unhealthy sway over the minds of the people, bolstered by the prevalence of idolatry and polytheism. 
• Critique of Religious Exploitation: Raja Rammohan Roy pointed out that their monopoly on scriptural knowledge and ritual interpretation distorted the essence of all religious systems. 
  • The devoted individuals not only obeyed the influential but also catered to the whims and wishes of the priests. 
• Religious Manipulation and Social Degradation: Under the influence of religious ideology, people were persuaded to do almost anything, with some women even going to the extreme of offering themselves to priests for their carnal gratification. 
  • This description highlights the deeply entrenched issues within religious practices and social norms of the time.
• Unique Impact of British Rule on Indian Society: The impact of British rule on Indian society and culture was distinct from previous encounters with foreign intruders. 
  • Earlier groups had integrated into Indian society, adopting its culture and becoming part of the land and its people. 
    • However, the British conquest brought a different dynamic. 
• Impact of European Enlightenment: The 18th century in Europe saw the emergence of the Age of Enlightenment, characterized by rationalism, inquiry, and a revitalized intellectual spirit. 
  • This period also witnessed significant advancements in science, influencing various aspects of political, military, economic, and religious life.

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Reaction against Western Culture

• Perceived Cultural Superiority: In contrast, India was viewed as having a relatively stagnant civilization and a society perceived as static and in decline. 
  • This marked the first encounter with an invader who considered themselves racially superior and culturally more advanced. 
• Western Influence: Initially, India appeared to be greatly influenced by Western ideas and values, creating a sense that it had fallen behind in the race for civilization.

The Depressing Status of Women 

• Grim Social Conditions and the Plight of Women: The social climate was equally dismal. The status of women was the most upsetting. 
  • It was common for attempts to murder newborn females. Child marriage constituted yet another social ill. 
• Polygamy, Child Marriage, and Sati: In Bengal, under Kulinism, polygamy was common and even elderly men married very young girls. 
  • Many women hardly had a marriage worthy of the name, but when their husbands passed away, they were expected to commit sati, which Raja Rammohan Roy defined as a “murder according to every shastra”—at least among the upper castes. 

The Caste Barrier

The Issue of Caste was another crippling factor. This meant a hierarchically prescribed system of segregation based on ritual status. 

• Impact of the Caste System: The scheduled castes, also known as untouchables, were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. 
  • The untouchables experienced numerous, serious limitations and handicaps. People were split up into multiple groups by the system. 
  • It developed into a significant barrier to the expansion of democracy and the development of a sense of national unity in modern times. 
• Caste Consciousness: It is worth noting that Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs who practiced untouchability also experienced caste consciousness, especially when it came to marriage, albeit in a less extreme way. 
• Erosion of Human Dignity: Rigid caste systems prevented social mobility, widened social divides, and discouraged individual initiative. 
  • Above all, the humiliation of untouchability—so much a part of the caste system militates against human dignity.

Seepage of Scientific Thinking

Scientific Outlook and Rationalism: The new scientific outlook, along with the principles of rationalism and humanism, left a deep impression on the English-educated class. 

• Indian leaders, inspired by this new knowledge, endeavoured to reform Hinduism from within, challenging superstitious beliefs and practices. 
• Traditional customs like idol worship, pilgrimage, and notions of pollution and purity were reevaluated and reformed. 
• Secularization emerged as a concept, signifying a shift in what was considered religious. 
• • Rationalism guided the regulation of individual religious and social life, leading to the rejection of traditional beliefs that could not withstand modern scrutiny.
• Intellectual and Cultural Transformation: Overall, the encounter with British rule ushered in a period of significant intellectual, cultural, and social change in India. 
  • Indian thinkers examined the country’s history closely, discerning that certain beliefs and practices had become obsolete and needed to be discarded. 
  • Simultaneously, they recognized the intrinsic value of many aspects of India’s cultural heritage, contributing to a cultural awakening. 

New Consciousness Among  Enlightened Indians

Western Influence and Recognition of Weaknesses: A new awakening was sparked by the influence of contemporary Western culture and the realization that a foreign power had defeated them. 

• There was a recognition that certain weaknesses in the Indian social structure and culture had allowed a small number of foreigners to colonize such a large country as India. 
• It appeared for a while that India was falling behind in the globalization race. This elicited a range of responses. 
• Reactions of Western-Educated Bengali Youth: Some Bengali youth who had received an education in England developed an abhorrence of Hindu religion and culture, abandoned traditional religious beliefs and customs, and purposefully adopted behaviors that were considered highly offensive to Hindu sentiments, such as eating beef and drinking wine. 
• • Although there were differences in the responses, social and religious life needed to be reformed.

Impact of Missionary Activity

Influence of Christian Missionaries on Western Education: Christian missionaries had a profound impact on the dissemination of Western concepts and the advancement of education, notably in areas like Bengal and Maharashtra. 

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• Agents of Cultural Exchange: Their efforts not only contributed to the propagation of Christianity but also fostered the exchange of cultural knowledge, making them influential agents of cross-cultural interaction and the expansion of educational opportunities in these regions.

Conclusion

The rise of reform movements in India was driven by a confluence of factors including religious superstitions, social stagnation, and the impact of British colonial rule. Enlightenment ideas and Western influence challenged outdated practices, while the grim status of women and the rigid caste system highlighted the need for change. These reformist initiatives, though diverse in their regional and religious contexts, collectively aimed at modernizing society, improving social conditions, and fostering intellectual and cultural rejuvenation.

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