Famine in Colonial India: Policies, Causes and Lasting Impacts

Famine is a severe scarcity of food caused by factors like war, natural disasters, crop failure, poverty, economic crises, or government policies. In India, during the 18th and 19th centuries, famines were frequent, largely due to colonial policies rather than natural disasters. The British implemented a Famine Policy aimed at minimizing famine impacts and costs. This policy evolved over time, reflecting changes in administrative approaches and economic conditions.

The Evolution of Famine Policy in India: From Ancient Measures to Colonial Catastrophes

Famines During Ancient and Medieval Period in India

• Famines During the Ancient Hindu Period: Famines devastated India even during the Hindu period of its history. 
  • However, based on the rarity of allusions to these calamities in ancient Sanskrit works and the testimony of foreign travelers, it would not be incorrect to conclude that famines were a rare occurrence in ancient India. 
  • When they did occur, the state took appropriate relief measures. 
  • In his Arthasastra, Kautilya mentions, among other things, tax revision, emigration, the granting of money and grain from state funds, the construction of artificial lakes, tanks, wells, and so on, and the importation of grain from other places. 
• Famines During the Mohammendan Period: During the Mohammendan period, there were several famines and scarcities, the most severe occurring in the reigns of Mohammad Tughlak, Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. 
  • In spite of vigorous measures adopted by the emperors, the famines took a heavy toll on life.

Famines during the Modern Period in India 

• Persistent Famines: During the modern period, famine was a persistent phenomenon in the Indian subcontinent. 
• Causes of Recurrent Famines: Monsoon dependency, lack of irrigation facilities, and lack of investment in agriculture leading to crop failures were some of the reasons behind recurrent famines. 
• Role of Government Interventions: Inadequate and ineffective government interventions also share the credit for expansion and intensifying famines in India. 
• Classification of Famines in Modern India: Hence, India was inflicted upon by a number of famines, which can be classified into two periods,  during company rule (1769 to 1857) and during the Crown administration(1858 to 1947). 

Famines Under the Company’s Rule(1769 to 1857)

During the rule of the East India Company India suffered in one part or another from twelve famines and four severe scarcities. These were:

Response of the Company and Provincial Government

• Lack of a General Famine Relief System: Under the East India Company, no attempt was made to formulate any general system of famine relief or prevention. 
• Provincial Government and District Officer Initiatives: However, the provincial governments and district officers tried various experiments to provide relief to famine-stricken areas such as the storage of grain by the Government, penalties on hoarding, bounties on imports, advancing loans for sinking of wells etc. 

Famines Under the Crown Administration, 1858 to 1947

• Impact of the Transfer of Power: The transfer of power from the Company to the Crown, as well as economic developments in the latter half of the nineteenth century such as the extension of railways and other modes of communication and transportation, as well as the expansion of overseas trade, altered the complexion of the problem. 
• State Recognition and Responsibility: The state also recognized its responsibility for expanding irrigation facilities, enacting agrarian legislation, and implementing preventive measures, as well as developing a famine relief policy to address potential famines.
• Severe Famines Under the Crown Administration: Under the Crown, there were ten severe famines besides a large number of scarcities. These were:

1. 1. 1860-61 (Area between Delhi and Agra): This was the first time when the authorities thought fit to enquire into the causes, area and intensity of the famine as well as take measures to cope with the distress. 
      • Colonel Baird Smith was deputed for this purpose but his report did not lead to any formulation of general principles of relief.
   2. 1866 (The Orissa Famine): It also affected Madras, Northern Bengal and Bihar. 
      • Despite being warned, government officials took no precautions to prepare for the impending disaster and appeared helpless when it arrived. 
      • The government followed free trade principles and the law of demand and supply. 
      • The government did provide employment for the able-bodied, leaving charitable relief to voluntary organizations. 
      • Because voluntary agencies did little, the famine claimed many lives. 
      • In Orissa alone, it was estimated that 13 lakh people died.

• 1868 (Northern and Central India): The government took action to alleviate the suffering, but the relief provided was insufficient in comparison to the magnitude of the suffering, and there was significant loss of life.
• 1876-78 (North India): It affected  Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh and the Punjab. The famine affected a population of more than 58 million. 
• R.C. Dutt has estimated that 5 million persons perished in a single year. The government made unwilling efforts to assist the famine victims. 
• The government’s famine machinery was insufficient and ineffective, and the policy’s folly was abundantly clear. 
• The government refused to accept responsibility for saving lives.

1. The Famine of 1896-97: It affected almost every province, though in varying degrees of intensity, the total population affected was estimated at 34 millions. 
   • The relief operations were conducted with a fair measure of success except in the Central Provinces where the death rate rose very high. 
   • Extensive relief operations were undertaken and in many parts of the country, people were relieved in their own homes.
2. The Famine of 1899-1900: It affected a population of 28 million. 
   • The authorities refused to open relief works in the early stages of the famine, and when they did, such large crowds descended on them that the system nearly collapsed in many cases.
3. The Famine of 1901-08: Several famines occurred, those of 1906-07 and 1907-08 being the more serious.
4. Bengal Famine of 1942-43: The Great Bengal Famine took a heavy toll on life. The reasons are-

• Series of crop failures that Bengal experienced from 1938.
• Conditions created by the Second World War. 
• Normal import of rice from Burma stopped.
• Trade and movement of foodgrains were dislocated because of controls and the proximity of Bengal to the threat of war in the east.

Causes of Famines During Colonial Rule

The arrival of the British colonial era in India from the mid-eighteenth century had profound impacts on the country’s social and economic fabric. One of the most disastrous consequences of this period was the sudden and devastating increase in famines, which inflicted widespread starvation and loss of life on the Indian population. 

The sudden spurt in famines in colonial India can be attributed to several factors

• Agricultural Policies: British land revenue policies, such as the Permanent Settlement of 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, placed a heavy tax burden on farmers, leaving them with little incentive or resources to invest in agricultural improvements. 
  • The Ryotwari System, implemented in Madras, Bombay, and parts of Assam, also led to high land revenue demands and further stressed the farmers. 
• Cash Crops and Commercialization: British colonial policies encouraged the cultivation of cash crops, such as indigo, cotton, and opium, which led to a decline in food crop cultivation and made the Indian population more susceptible to food shortages and famines. 
• Infrastructure and Irrigation: The British built extensive railway networks in India, but the construction of irrigation canals and other agricultural infrastructure was comparatively limited, resulting in increased vulnerability to famines.
• Economic Exploitation: The British extracted resources from India through heavy taxation and trade imbalances, which depleted India’s wealth and left the population with fewer resources to deal with famines. 
  • The ‘drain of wealth’ theory by Dadabhai Naoroji highlights this exploitation. 
• Inadequate Famine Relief Measures: The colonial government’s response to famines was often slow and inadequate. 
  • Example: During the Orissa famine of 1866, the colonial government’s relief measures were criticized due to prioritizing law and order over relief. 
• Ecological Factors: Deforestation for agriculture and resources extraction worsened droughts and increased vulnerability to famines. 
  • Example: Deforestation in the Central Provinces and Berar caused ecological imbalances and more frequent droughts. 

Impacts of Famines

During British colonial rule from the mid-18th century until India’s independence in 1947, witnessed a series of catastrophic food shortages that left indelible scars on the Indian subcontinent. Famines were not mere natural disasters; they were profoundly intertwined with policies, social structures, and economic systems, often perpetuated or exacerbated by colonial rule. Famines had following impacts:

• Loss of Lives and Human Suffering: One of the most devastating consequences of famines in colonial India was the loss of lives. 
  • Millions of people, often the poorest and most vulnerable, succumbed to hunger, malnutrition, and diseases exacerbated by food scarcity. 
  • Families were torn apart, and communities were left grappling with grief and suffering.
• Economic Devastation: Famine led to economic havoc in affected regions. 
  • Crop failures and food shortages disrupted agricultural and economic activities, causing widespread unemployment and poverty. 
  • The agricultural sector, the backbone of the colonial economy, suffered severe setbacks.
• Impoverishment and Displacement: Famine often pushed families and communities into extreme poverty. 
  • People had to sell their assets, including land and livestock, at distressingly low prices just to buy food. 
  • Many were forced to leave their homes in search of relief, often becoming destitute and dislocated.
• Migration and Urbanization: Famine triggered mass migrations from rural areas to urban centers in search of food and livelihoods. 
  • This led to the rapid growth of cities, contributing to the urbanization of colonial India and placing immense pressure on urban resources and infrastructure.
• Impact on Agriculture: Famine affected agricultural practices and land use. 
  • In some cases, farmers shifted to drought-resistant or more reliable crops, altering the traditional agricultural landscape.
• Social Disruption: Famine disrupted the social fabric of affected areas. Communities fractured as people sought survival elsewhere. 
  • Traditional support systems and kinship networks were strained, sometimes leading to social upheaval.
• Health and Education Crisis: Malnutrition and lack of access to basic healthcare during famines resulted in long-term health consequences for survivors, including stunted growth and vulnerability to diseases. 
  • Children’s education was severely disrupted, perpetuating cycles of poverty.

Conclusion

The British colonial famine policies were inadequate and financially constrained, leading to repeated famines and immense human suffering. 

• Post-independence, India’s focus shifted towards self-sufficiency in food production, highlighted by the Green Revolution, which significantly reduced famine threats. 
• Today, India continues to prioritize food security and disaster management, learning from its historical experiences.

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