In the early 18th century, the powerful Mughals, who ruled for nearly two hundred years, began to falter. Aurangzeb’s leadership (1658–1707) marked the onset of the Mughal downfall in India. Many believe his flawed strategies destabilized the nation, and after his demise, the empire weakened further due to succession battles and incompetent monarchs. Even with Muhammad Shah’s 29-year rule (1719–48), there was no empire resurgence due to his poor leadership. His era saw the rise of independent territories like Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab.
Obstacles Before the Mughal
External Challenges
Lacking internal might, the Mughals couldn’t present a strong defence against outside threats, mainly from the northwest invasions. The north-western boundaries were overlooked by subsequent Mughals, with minimal endeavours to safeguard the frontier.
Invasion of Nadir Shah
- Devastating Invasion of India: Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, invaded India in 1738–39, seized Lahore, and overcame the Mughal forces at Karnal on February 13, 1739. Subsequently, Muhammad Shah was taken prisoner, and Delhi faced plunder and destruction.
- The Loot of Delhi: As per records, besides the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor gem, seventy crore rupees were taken from the state treasury and wealthy nobles’ vaults.
- Nadir Shah secured the vital Mughal land west of the Indus, including Kabul. Hence, India was once more exposed to north-western assaults.
| Nader Shah was Mughal emperor for only fifty-seven days, in 1739, but those days created aftershocks that transformed India’s politics. They broke existing centres of authority, massively shrinking the scope of Mughal power. They set loose bands of mounted warriors who ransacked the countryside seeking wealth from villages and towns. They pushed traders behind the walls of whichever power had the strongest forts. For a short period plunder, rather than negotiation, became the most effective tool for creating new centres of wealth. Those fifty-seven days laid the ground which allowed the East India Company to conquer territory in India for the first time. —Jon Wilson, India Conquered |
Invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali
- Fall of Punjab: Ahmad Shah Abdali (also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani), chosen as Nadir Shah’s heir after his demise in 1747, made multiple invasions into India from 1748 to 1767. He persistently troubled the Mughals, leading them to hand over Punjab to him in 1751–52.
- Seizure of Delhi and the Power Struggle with the Marathas: In 1757, Abdali seized Delhi and appointed an Afghan overseer for the Mughal ruler. Before departing, he acknowledged Alamgir II as the Mughal sovereign and appointed Rohilla leader, Najib-ud-Daula, as the empire’s Mir Bakhshi, positioning him as Abdali’s main representative.
- However, in 1758, Maratha chief Raghunath Rao drove Najib-ud-Daula out of Delhi and captured Punjab.
- Abdali’s Return and the Decisive Victory at Panipat: By 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali came back to India, seeking retribution against the Marathas. In 1761, he triumphed over the Marathas at the Third Battle of Panipat. Abdali’s final invasion occurred in 1767.
| The Significance of Panipat in Indian History
Panipat’s Strategic Appeal as a Battlefield
Notable Battles at Panipat
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Internal Challenges
- Decline of the Mughal Empire: The later Mughals, spanning from the late 17th to the 19th century, marked a period of decline in the mighty Mughal Empire of India. Beginning with Bahadur Shah I in 1707 and culminating with the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, in 1857, this era was characterized by political instability, external invasions, and internal revolts.
- Challenges and the End of an Empire: Unlike their predecessors who were known for grand architectural projects, expansive conquests, and cultural contributions, the later Mughals grappled with challenges from emerging powers like the Marathas and the British East India Company. Their reign concluded with the 1857 Revolt and the subsequent British colonial takeover.
Later Mughals
The Sayyid Brothers and their influence in the Mughal Empire
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Bahadur Shah I (1707–12)
Following a nearly two-year succession battle, Aurangzeb’s eldest son, Prince Muazzam, aged sixty-three, assumed the throne and assumed the name Bahadur Shah. Later, he was referred to as Bahadur Shah I. In the succession conflict, he murdered his brothers Kam Bakhsh and Muhammad Azam. Bahadur Shah received the title Shah-i-Bekhabar from Khafi Khan.
- Pacific Strategy: In dealing with the Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats, he pursued a pacific strategy. Although he reached a state of peace with Guru Govind Singh, his rule in Punjab faced ongoing challenges from the Sikh rebellion led by Banda Bahadur.
- In the Battle of Lohgarh, Banda was defeated, and Mughal forces retook Sirhind in 1711. Despite these events, the Sikh community remained neither appeased nor entirely subdued.
- Policy towards Marathas: The Mughal emperor Shahu freed the Maratha prince, and the Rajput leaders were formally installed in their states.
- But after Sikh leader Banda Bahadur assaulted Muslims in Punjab, the emperor intervened to stop him. February 1712 saw the death of Bahadur Shah I.
Jahandar Shah (1712–13)
- Jahandar Shah’s Ascendancy: During the war of succession among Bahadur Shah’s four sons, Jahandar Shah emerged victorious with the support of the influential Iranian noble, Zulfikar Khan.
| Zulfiqar Khan
Zulfiqar Khan is known for his significant policy reversals during his rule, notably in his efforts to foster amicable relations with various regional powers, including the Rajputs, Marathas, and several Hindu chieftains. One of his notable actions was the abolition of the jizya tax. He also conferred the title of Mirza Raj Sawai upon Jai Singh of Ambar and elevated Ajit Singh to the rank of Maharaja. Furthermore, he granted Shahu the chauth and sardeshmukhi rights in the Deccan region. However, Zulfiqar Khan’s legacy is marred by his introduction of the controversial practice of Ijarah, commonly known as revenue farming, which has received criticism in historical accounts. |
- Zulfikar Khan’s Influence: Jahandar Shah, appointed Zulfikar Khan as his Prime Minister, marking the onset of the Mughal Empire’s era of puppet rulers. Jahandar Shah abolished Jaziya.
- Role of Sayyid Brothers: Farrukhsiyar, the grandson of Bahadur Shah, challenged Jahandar Shah’s rule and took the assistance of the Sayyid Brothers, Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali. Together, they managed to defeat and ultimately kill Jahandar Shah in 1713.
Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)
- Religious Reforms: After overthrowing Jahandar Shah with the Sayyid brothers’ help, he ascended. Known for religious tolerance, he eradicated Jizya and pilgrimage taxes.
- Key Appointments: Farrukhsiyar, during his reign, appointed Abdulla Khan as his Wazir (Prime Minister) and Hussain Ali as Mir Bakshi (Head of the military administration).
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- Conflict and Conspiracy: Nevertheless, tensions arose between Farrukhsiyar and the Sayyid brothers. With the assistance of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and Maratha troops, the Sayyid brothers conspired to assassinate the emperor in 1719.
- Trade Privileges to the East India Company: During this period, the East India Company was granted numerous trading privileges, including exemptions from customs duties for its trade conducted through Bengal (Farrukhsiyar Farman).
Muhammad Shah (1719–48)
After the death of Rafi-ud-Daula, Raushan Akhtar became the choice of the Sayyid Brothers. Muhammad Shah, as he came to be known in history, was given the title of ‘Rangeela’ due to his luxurious lifestyle.
- Rise of Nizam-ul-Mulk: Muhammad Shah killed the Sayyid Brothers with the assistance of Nizam-ul-Mulk. When Nizam-ul-Mulk assumed the role of Wazir in 1724, he established Hyderabad as an independent state.
- Attack of Marathas: With a mere 500 horsemen, Baji Rao I, the Maratha Peshwa, attacked Delhi in 1737.
- Defeat from Nadir Shah: After defeating the Mughals in the Battle of Karnal in 1739, Nadir Shah imprisoned Muhammad Shah and annexed regions of the Persian empire west of the Indus.
- Contributions to Art and Literature: Muhammad Shah was a prominent supporter of the arts, fostering cultural and musical advancements during his reign. He had a deep passion for dancing and was skilled in the Kathak dance form.
- Under his rule, Urdu was promoted and officially designated as the court language, supplanting Persian. Additionally, he oversaw the first translations of the Quran into both Persian and Urdu, making it more accessible to a wider audience. In terms of educational progress, Muhammad Shah introduced religious institutions like Maktabs, furthering the dissemination of knowledge.
- Dressing Style: Notably, his era saw a transformation in the attire of Mughal nobility, as they adopted the Sherwani style of dressing.
- Painting: The realm of painting flourished during his reign, with renowned artists such as Nidha Mal and Chitarman producing captivating artworks that depicted court life, vibrant Holi celebrations, and exhilarating hunting scenes.
- Music: Muhammad Shah’s contributions to music were substantial, as he introduced Qawwali to the Mughal Imperial Court, helping to popularize this musical form. Court musicians, including the celebrated Sadarang and Adarang, played a significant role in promoting the Khayal style of Hindustani Classical Music.
Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754)
Ahmad Shah was an incompetent ruler who left state affairs in the hands of Udham Bai, the ‘Queen Mother’. Udham Bai, given the title of Qibla-i-Alam, was a lady of poor intellect who ruled with the help of her paramour, Javid Khan (a notorious eunuch).
Alamgir II (1754–59)
A descendant of Jahandar Shah, his rule witnessed the Iranian invasion and the Battle of Plassey. He was murdered.
Shah Jahan III (1759–60)
After a brief reign due to Maratha’s actions, he was deposed.
Shah Alam II (1760–1806)
- His reign saw two decisive battles—the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the Battle of Buxar (1764).
- In 1765, according to the terms of the Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765), he was taken under the East India Company’s protection and resided at Allahabad.
- Additionally, he issued a Farman giving the Company the perpetual right to collect revenue from Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, known as the Diwani.
- The Marathas brought him to Delhi in 1772, where he resided until 1803. Following the English defeat of Daulat Rao Scindia in 1803, he once more consented to the protection of the English. The Mughal emperors thereafter became English pensioners.
Akbar Shah II (1806–37)
He titled Rammohan Roy ‘Raja’. In 1835, the East India Company distanced from Mughal representation and stopped the coins bearing the names of Mughal emperors.
Bahadur Shah II (1837–57)
Also known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, he was the last Mughal emperor. After the 1857 Revolt, the British exiled him to Rangoon, dying in 1862. In legal terms, the Mughal Empire came to an end on November 1, 1858, with the declaration of Queen Victoria.
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Conclusion
The decline of the Mughal Empire during the 18th century marked a pivotal moment in Indian history, facilitating substantial developments. Ineffective leadership, internal strife, and invasions by figures such as Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali significantly eroded Mughal authority, leading to a fragmentation of regional power. Furthermore, the empire’s stability was further compromised by the strategic confrontations at Panipat. By the mid-19th century, the Mughal Empire’s influence had diminished considerably, creating an opportunity for British colonial rule to transform the political framework of India.
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