Development of Education in Colonial India: Policies, Reforms and Impact

The British colonial period had a profound impact on the development of education in India. During this time, the education system was primarily shaped to serve the needs of the colonial administration, with a focus on creating a class of educated Indians to assist in governance. While some progress was made in higher education, mass education and women’s education were largely neglected.

Evolution of Education in Colonial India: Policies, Commissions, and Reforms Under British Rule

Several commissions, including Hunter, Raleigh, Saddler, and others, made recommendations for changes to the Indian education system while operating under the British Crown.

Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)

• Appointment of the Hunter Education Commission: In 1882 the Government appointed a Commission under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter with the objective of reviewing the progress of education in the country since the Dispatch of 1854. 
• Prompted by Propaganda and Discrepancies: The Commission’s appointment was also prompted by the propaganda spread by missionaries in England, which claimed that the Indian educational system did not follow the guidelines outlined in Wood’s Despatch. 
• Primary Focus on Elementary Education: The Commission’s investigation was primarily focused on the status and expansion of elementary education across India.
  • “To enquire into the general working of the Indian universities” was not the Commission’s mandate. 
  • As a result, the Commission focused primarily on secondary and primary education in its remarks.  
• Recommendations for Primary Education
  • Vernacular Languages: Emphasized that the state’s special care is required for the extension and improvement of primary education and that primary education should be imparted through the vernacular.
  • Transfer of Primary Education Control: Transfer of control of primary education to newly set up district and municipal boards.
  • Division of Secondary Education: Secondary (high school) education should have two divisions:
    • Literary: Leading up to university
    • Vocational: For commercial careers
• Recommendations for Female Education: Drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education, especially outside presidency towns and made recommendations for its spread

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Aftermath of the Hunter Commission Report (1882-1902)

• Growth and Expansion of Secondary and Collegiate Education: The two decades after the Hunter Commission saw significant growth in secondary and collegiate education across India.
• Role of Indian Philanthropy in Educational Expansion: Indian philanthropic activity played a key role in the establishment of numerous denominational institutions.
• Revival of Interest in Indian and Oriental Studies: The period witnessed a renewed interest in Indian and Oriental studies, alongside the pursuit of Western knowledge.
• Establishment of Teaching-Cum-Examining Universities: The setting up of teaching-cum-examining universities led to the foundation of Punjab University (1882) and Allahabad University (1887).

Raleigh Commission/Indian Universities Act 1904

• Summoning of the Round Table Conference at Simla (1901): In 1901 Curzon summoned the highest educational officers of the Government throughout India and representatives of universities at a round table conference at Simla. 
• Formation of the Raleigh Commission (1902): This was followed by the appointment of a Commission under the presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh on 27 January 1902 to inquire into the condition and prospects of universities in India and to recommend proposals for improving their constitution and working. 
• Recommendations Leading to the Indian Universities Act (1904): The Commission’s report and recommendations led to the 1904 passage of the Indian Universities Act. The following were the primary modifications that were suggested:
  • Focus on Study and Research in Universities: Universities were to give more attention to study and research. 
  • Government Control Over University Regulations: The majority of fellows were to be nominated by the government, and there were restrictions on the number of fellows and their tenure at universities.
    • The government was to have the authority to veto any regulations passed by the universities’ senate, amend existing regulations, or enact new ones.
  • Stricter Affiliation Requirements for Private Colleges: More stringent requirements were to be implemented for private colleges to affiliate.
  • Financial Support for Higher Education: Five lakh rupees were to be sanctioned per annum for five years for the improvement of higher education and universities.
• Long-Term Impact of Curzon’s Policy: In its broad outline, the system of higher education remained much as it had been before. 
  • However, a good outcome of Curzon’s policy was the sanction in 1902 of a grant of Rs. 5 lakhs per annum for five years for the improvement of higher education and universities. 
  • Government grants have become a permanent feature ever since then.

Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913

Background

• Baroda’s Introduction of Compulsory Primary Education (1906): In 1906, the progressive state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout its territories. 
• Advocacy for Compulsory Education: National leaders urged the government to do so for British India. 
• Efforts to Highlight Education Issues (1910): Knowing the British Government’s intentions, moderate Congress leader K. Gokhale tried to bring the state of education to the attention of both Indian and English citizens. 
• Gokhale’s Resolution: As a member of the Imperial legislative council, he introduced a resolution in 1910.

Resolution on Education Policy (1913)

• Government’s Stance on Compulsory Education: The government refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education but accepted the removal policy of illiteracy.
• Encouraging Provincial Governments: It urged provincial governments to take early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward sections.
• Establishment of Universities: A university is to be established in each province. 
  • The universities were to be relieved of the responsibility of granting recognition to high schools.
• Private Efforts and Quality Improvement: Private efforts were to be encouraged for this and the quality of secondary schools was to be improved.
• Recommendations for Women’s Education: For women’s education, it was recommended that curricula for girls should be of practical utility and that exams for girls shouldn’t be given much weight. 
  • Nevertheless, there should be more women serving as inspectors and teachers.
• Impact of World War I on Implementation: However, the First World War delayed the implementation of many recommendations set out in the Resolution.

Sadler Commission (1917-19) and Its Recommendations

• Appointment of the Commission: In 1917 the Government of India appointed a Commission to study and report on the problems of Calcutta University. 
  • Dr. M.E. Sadler was appointed its Chairman. 
  • The Commission included two Indian members, namely Sir Asutosh Mukerji and Dr. Zia-ud-din-Ahmad. 
• 12-Year School Course and University Entry Reform: The school course should cover 12 years. Students should enter university after an intermediate stage (rather than matric) for a three-year degree course in university. This was done to:
• Prepare students for the university stage
• Relieve universities of a large number of below-university-standard students; and
• provide collegiate education to those not planning to go through the university stage
• Creation of a Separate Board: A separate board of secondary and intermediate education should be set up for administration and control of secondary and intermediate education.
• Flexible University Regulations: There should be less rigidity in framing university regulations.
• Centralized, Autonomous Universities: A university should function as a centralized, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body, rather than as scattered affiliated colleges.
• Promotion of Female Education in Scientific and Vocational Fields: Female education applied to scientific and technological education, teachers’ training, including those for professional and vocational colleges, should be extended.

Developments in Higher Education (1916-1929) Following the Sadler Commission

• Establishment of New Universities: From 1916 to 1929, several new universities came up, as shown in the table.
• Increase in Teaching and Residential Universities: The number of teaching universities and residential universities increased with the introduction of Honors courses.
• Functions of Major Universities: The functions of universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were to provide affiliations, conduct examinations and confer degrees.
• Creation of Facilities for Higher Studies and Research: Facilities for higher studies and research were also created.
• Honors Courses and Indian Languages: Study of Honour courses started and studies in different indian languages began.
• Improvement in University Administration: Internal administration of universities improved.
  • The Academic Council was created to deal with such matters as curriculum, construction, examination, and research. 
  • This helped to improve academic standards.
• Formation of the Inter-University Board: The Inter-University Board was set up to coordinate among the different Indian universities and a board of student welfare was set up.
• Criticism of the Commission’s Recommendations: However, the recommendations of the commission have been criticized for being too advanced for the time.

Hartog Committee (1929)

• Deterioration of Quality Due to Quantitative Increase: The quantitative increase in education inevitably led to the deterioration of quality and the lowering of standards. 
• Dissatisfaction with the Educational System: There was considerable dissatisfaction with the educational system. 
• Role of the Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission): The Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) appointed a report on the development of education. 
• Main Findings of the Hartog Committee: The Hartog Committee, set up by the Simon Commission, highlighted the following key findings regarding the state of education in India:

Primary Education

Secondary Education

Higher Education

Women’s Education

• The education of boys and girls should get equal importance.
• More primary schools for girls should be established
• The curriculum should include hygiene, home science, and music in secondary schools.
• Attention should also be given to the training of women for teaching jobs.

Evaluation of Hartog Committee’s Recommendations

• The report of the Hartog Committee was effective to an extent in improving the quality of primary education. 
• However, the quantitative expansion suffered. Secondary school education improved. The number of affiliated colleges also went up.

Sergeant Plan (1944) – Key Recommendations for Education Reform

• National Scheme of Education: In 1944 the Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of education, generally known as the Sergeant Plan (Sir John Sargeant was the Educational Advisor to the Government of India). The main recommendations were:
• Free Pre-Primary Education for Children (3-6 years): Free pre-primary education for children between the years of 3 and 6. 
  • The teachers in these nursery schools should have women adequately trained for the work.
• Universal, Compulsory, and Free Education (6-14 years): There should be universal, compulsory, and free education for the 6 to 14 years age group. 
  • This group would be divided into two stages; Junior Basic (6-11) and Senior Basic (11–14). 
• Learning Through Activity: The fundamental principle of education should be “learning through activity”. 
  • Emphasis on learning some basic craft or crafts, physical training and organized games.
• Six-Year High School Education: High school education should be for a period of six years for selected children from the age of 11 years. 
  • The high schools were to be of two types: (a) Academic and (b) Technical.
• Medium of Instruction and Language Policy: The mother tongue would be the medium of instruction in all high schools while Medium of Instruction and Language Policy.

Indian Efforts 

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• Congress National Conference on Education (Wardha, 1944): Congress organized a national conference on education in Wardha and formulated a committee under Zakir Hussain for basic education. 
  • The scheme focused on “learning through activity” based on Gandhi’s ideas published in Harijan. 

Key Features of the Wardha Scheme of Education (1944)

The scheme, which advocated free and compulsory education for all from the years 7 to 14, had the following provisions:

• Inclusion of Handicrafts: Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus.
• Free and Compulsory Education: First seven years of schooling to be an integral part of a free and compulsory nationwide education system (through mother tongue).
• Medium of Instruction in Mother Tongue: Teaching to be in the mother tongue; Hindi to be taught in areas where it was not the mother tongue.
• Education through Productive Activity: Educating the child through the medium of productive activity of a suitable craft such as spinning and weaving, carpentry, agriculture, pottery, leather work, home science for girls, etc.
• Curriculum Content: Mathematics, general science, social studies, painting, music, and physical education are to be part of the curriculum.
• Exclusion of Religious or Moral Education: No religious or moral education is included.

There was not much development of this idea, because of the start of the Second World War and the resignation of the Congress ministries (October 1939).

Evaluation of British Policy on Education

Objectives of Government Measures in Education: The government measures were guided to achieve the following objectives:

• Supply of Educated Indians for Administrative Posts: The need to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to man an increasing number of subordinate posts in administration which is why English as a medium of instruction was prioritized. 
• Expansion of the Market for British Manufacturers: The hope was that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufacturers in India.
• Reconciliation of Indians to British Rule through Western Education: The expectation was that Western education would reconcile Indians to British rule, especially since it praised British conquerors and administration

Evaluation of British Educational Policies in India

• Decline of Traditional Learning: The traditional system of Indian learning gradually declined for want of support as after 1844 it was declared that applicants for government employment should possess knowledge of English.
• Neglect of Mass Education: Mass education was neglected leading to widespread illiteracy (1911—84 per cent and in 1921—92 per cent), which created a wide linguistic and cultural gulf between the educated few and the masses.
• Exclusion of the Lower Classes: Since education was to be paid for, it became a monopoly of upper and richer classes and city dwellers.
• Neglect of Women’s Education: There was an almost total neglect of women’s education because: 
  • The government did not want to arouse the wrath of orthodox sections.
  • It had no immediate utility for colonial rule.
• Neglect of Scientific and Technical Education: Scientific and technical education was by and large neglected. 
  • By 1857, there were only three medical colleges at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and only one good engineering college at Roorkee, which was open only to Europeans and Eurasians.

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Conclusion

The British education policies in India helped to establish a framework for higher education but largely ignored the needs of the broader population. 

• As a result, education remained elitist, with a sharp divide between the educated few and the illiterate masses. 
• The neglect of mass education and the lack of focus on vocational and technical learning left India unprepared for independent development.

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