Factors Responsible for the Emergence and Growth of Indian Nationalism

British colonial rulers opposed the growing Indian national consciousness in the late nineteenth century. British scholars dismissed India as a mere ‘geographical expression,’ with some doubting its ability to unify as a nation.

During the 19th century, with the evident growth and strengthening of nationalism, certain British scholars adopted a new stance, started giving credit to the British Raj for the growth of Indian nationalism. Contrary to this narrative, the truth was that Indian nationalism emerged as an unwelcome offspring of the Raj, an entity it initially neglected and later sought to suppress.

Thus, a more accurate perspective recognizes Indian nationalism as a product of a blend of diverse factors.

Factors

Growth of Vernacular Literature

The influence of Western education prompted the educated Indians to reflect the idea of liberty, freedom, and nationalism through the vernacular literature. They aimed at arousing the masses to oppose British rule being surcharged by the spirit of nationalism. 

• Bankim Chandra Chatterji’s Anand Math (which contained the song Vande Mataram) and Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Nil Darpan extorted tremendous influence upon the people and created anti-British feelings among them. 
• Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s play Bharat Durdasa reflected the miserable condition of the Indian masses under British rule.

Besides several eminent poets and writers in different languages, e.g., Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnushastri Chiplunkar in Marathi, Lakshminath Bezbaroa in Assamese, Mohammad Hussain Azad and Altaf Hussain Hali in Urdu, etc. contributed a lot to rouse nationalism among the local people through their writings.

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Rediscovery of India’s Past

Historical research in ancient Indian history, predominantly conducted by European scholars such as Max Muller, Monier William, Roth, and Session, and Indian scholars like R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, and later Swami Vivekananda, unveiled India’s rich cultural heritage. This portrayal showcased well-developed political, economic, and social institutions, thriving trade, a rich cultural heritage, and numerous cities in India’s past. 

• Archaeological excavations led by scholars like Marshall and Cunningham presented a compelling narrative of India’s past grandeur, akin to the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. Scholars lauded the literary merit and profound psychological insights of the Vedas and Upanishads.  
• The European theory suggesting that the Indo-Aryans shared a common ethnic origin with European nations provided a psychological uplift for educated Indians. 

This newfound historical awareness instilled a sense of pride, confidence, and a renewed spirit of patriotism and nationalism among the educated elite. The gained self-respect and confidence empowered nationalists to dispel colonial myths, challenging the notion of India having a history of prolonged servility to foreign rulers.

Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia

Rise of the Urban Middle Class: British administrative and economic innovations gave birth to a new urban middle class in towns. This class, driven by the prospect of employment and a sense of prestige linked to English proficiency, swiftly embraced the language. Distinguished by education, a new social standing, and close ties with the ruling class, it emerged prominently.

• Modern India’s Leadership: This dynamic middle class became the driving force of modern India, ultimately infusing the entire nation with its spirit. It assumed a leadership role in all stages of growth for the Indian National Congress, reflecting its significance in shaping modern India.

Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements

In the 19th century, educated Indians critically re-evaluated their religious beliefs, customs, and social practices in light of Western science and philosophy. This led to various reform movements in Hinduism, such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Theosophical Society. Similar movements also reformed Muslim, Sikh, and Parsi societies.

• Goals of Reform Movements: The objective of these reform movements was to eradicate religious evils like superstition, idolatry, polytheism, and hereditary priesthood, and social evils like caste discrimination, untouchability, and other inequalities that had fragmented Indian society, and advocating for societal recognition based on democratic principles and the ideas of individual and social equality, reason, enlightenment, and liberalism. 
• Impact of Reformers: These reformers advocated for human equality, individual liberty, and the abolition of social disparities. Their efforts transformed the mindset of Indians, awakening them from centuries of subjugation.

This endeavor had the outcome of uniting diverse sections of society and emerged as a significant factor in the development of Indian nationalism.

Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World

The prevailing strong currents of nationalist ideas in Europe and South America had a significant influence on Indian nationalism. 

• The emergence of several national states in South America following the decline of the Spanish and Portuguese empires, along with the national liberation movements in Greece, Italy, and notably Ireland in Europe, profoundly resonated with the sentiments of Indians.

Educated Indians, while touring Europe, were greatly inspired by these nationalist movements.

• For example, Surendranath Banerji delivered lectures on Joseph Mazzini and the “Young Italy” movement organized by him. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai frequently referenced the campaigns of Garibaldi and the activities of Carbonaris in his speeches and writings. 

Therefore, the developing nationalism in India received power from the developing nationalism in Europe.

Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers (Racialism)

The British, through a deliberate strategy of discrimination and segregation, aimed to perpetuate racial myths of white superiority, deeply injuring the sentiments of Indians. 

• Lytton’s policy aimed to decrease the maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 to 19 years (1876).
• Holding a grand Delhi Durbar (1877) during a severe famine sparked criticism and resentment among the Indian population.
• The legislation imposed restrictions on the vernacular press (1878), curbing freedom of the press and expression.
• Enactment of the Arms Act (1878) imposed restrictions on the possession of arms, perceived as oppressive.
• The Ilbert Bill (1883) controversy followed, where Ripon attempted to eliminate  “judicial disqualification based on race distinctions” and grant equal powers to Indian members of the civil service.
• Due to strong opposition from the European community, the Ilbert Bill had to be modified, compromising its original intent. The organized agitation by Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also served as a lesson for nationalists in advocating for their rights and demands.

A regrettable aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857 was the emergence of racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled. Illustrations in the Punch portrayed Indians as a combination of half-gorilla and half-negro. 

• The Anglo-Indian bureaucracy adopted an attitude of arrogance and contempt toward the Indians, subscribing to the belief that the only effective argument with them was superior force. 
• This led to the development of a European social code of ethics and the formulation of the theory of a superior race. Europeans concluded that Indians belonged to an inferior race, devoid of trustworthiness, often branding them as a nation of liars, perjurers, and forgers.
•  The Anglo-Indian lobby produced literature promoting these racial stereotypes, particularly against the English. 

This narrow-minded perspective triggered a defensive reaction among educated Indians.

Economic Exploitation by the Britishers

The impact of British rule on the Indian economy was calamitous, as described by Jawaharlal Nehru, who noted that foreign political domination led to the rapid destruction of the economy India had built up, resulting in “poverty and degradation beyond measure.” Despite claims of social welfare by some British scholars, the actual objective of British policies was the systematic destruction of the traditional Indian economy.

British policies in India, spanning agriculture, heavy industry, finance, tariffs, foreign capital investment, foreign trade, and banking, were all designed to preserve the colonial economy. Despite British intentions, modern capitalist enterprise emerged in India in the 1860s, causing concern among British textile manufacturers. 

• Economic Motives Behind British Expansion: In the first half of the nineteenth century, Britain, in the throes of the Industrial Revolution, sought cheap raw materials and a market for its industrial products. 
• The controversy over Cotton Duties is a prime example, with British capitalists lobbying for changes that suited their sectional interests. 
• The £-Re-exchange ratio was manipulated to the disadvantage of Indian industry and foreign trade, making it evident that when British economic interests clashed with Indian economic development, the latter was sacrificed.
• Economic Stagnation: Extravagant civil and military administration, denial of high posts to Indians, mounting “Home Charges,” and the continuous drain of wealth from India resulted in the stagnation of the Indian economy. 
• Famine Crisis:: Periodic famines, with 24 occurring during the second half of the 19th century, claimed an estimated toll of 28 million lives. 
  • Even during famines, food grain exports from India continued.
• Landlordism and Exploitation: The British, in collaboration with local money lenders, created absentee landlords, perpetuating the exploitation of the Indian masses and plunging them deeper into poverty. 
  • The detrimental impact of British exploitation was evident in the Indian economy, as highlighted by Dadabhai Naoroji’s theory of agricultural decay and the criticisms of G. V. Josh and Ranade against the decline of Indian handicrafts.

The discriminatory economic and fiscal policies of the British sparked a sharp reaction and gave rise to economic nationalism in India.  Indian nationalists formulated the “theory of increasing poverty in India,” attributing it to Britain’s anti-India economic policies. This narrative linked poverty with foreign rule, fostering a hatred for foreign rule and a preference for Swadeshi goods and Swadeshi rule. This psychological shift provided a significant boost to the spirit of nationalism.

Foreign Personalities  Contribution in India’s Freedom Struggle 

Numerous foreign individuals, inspired by India’s rich culture, history, and struggle for freedom, made India their home and actively participated in the independence movement. They played crucial roles in different aspects of the struggle, from providing intellectual input to actively participating in protests and campaigns. 

Following were the Foreign Personalities:

Female Personalities

• Annie Besant: She was an Irish-born British socialist, theosophist, and women’s rights activist, who played a significant role in the Indian freedom struggle. She became involved in Indian politics and joined the Indian National Congress (INC). 
  • Besant played a key role in launching the Home Rule League movement in 1916, which aimed at achieving self-government for India within the British Empire. 
  • Her contributions helped create awareness about India’s political aspirations and garnered support for the independence movement. 
• Sister Nivedita: Sister Nivedita was a social worker, author, and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. She dedicated her life to India’s cultural and national awakening. Nivedita actively supported Indian revolutionaries like Aurobindo Ghosh and Bagha Jatin and was known to have provided financial and moral support to their activities. 
  • Her writings and lectures helped create awareness about the need for India’s independence and the upliftment of its people. 
• Saint Teresa of Calcutta, an Albanian- Roman Catholic nun and missionary to India exemplifies the contributions of foreigners to India. Not only for social causes, but they also contributed significantly to the Indian freedom struggle.

Male Personalities

• William Jones: He was well acquainted with Indian traditions and led the debate in favour of Eastern education in vernacular language. Though they could not succeed in their efforts, it highlights the respect and recognition of Indian tradition.
• A. O. Hume: Allan Octavian Hume, a British civil servant, was a prominent figure in the early phase of the Indian freedom struggle.
  • He is best known for his role in founding the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885. Although Hume’s vision for the INC was initially limited to facilitating communication between the British administration and the Indian people, the organization later evolved into a major platform for the struggle for Indian independence. 
• Mira Alfassa (The Mother): Mira Alfassa, also known as The Mother, was a French national who became a spiritual collaborator of Sri Aurobindo. She played an essential role in spreading Aurobindo’s spiritual and nationalist ideas in India and abroad. 
  • While her primary focus was on spiritual work, her support for Indian nationalists and their cause contributed to the broader struggle for Indian independence.

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• G. Horniman: he was the best-regarded newspaper editor of his era who developed the Bombay Chronicle as one of nationalism’s most effective platforms.

Conclusion

Indian nationalism develops as a multifaceted fabric having various strands. The quest for autonomy in pre-Congress associations, global movements, middle-class intelligentsia, and economic exploitation are interconnected. A nation’s resilience is portrayed through the historical narrative marked by the response to colonial policies and societal transformations. Indian nationalism has a rich mosaic that incorporates each regional voice as well as the demand for social reform. India’s independence was pushed by interacting powers that represented a spirit of fierce resistance and strong will. It is a brief historical outline that highlights the intricacies that characterize India’s struggle for liberation as well the hopes that have pushed the country to fight continuously to gain independence.

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