The Evolution of Women’s Rights and Reforms in India: From Sati to Suffrage

The birth of a girl was often met with disappointment, her marriage viewed as a burden, and her widowhood considered inauspicious. Sadly, attempts to kill female infants at birth were not uncommon. Those who survived this initial brutality were frequently subjected to early and often violent marriages. In many cases, marriage was pursued as a means of escaping social disgrace, resulting in marital lives that were far from pleasant. The campaign for the improvement of the condition and status of women was not a purely humanitarian measure either. No reform could be effective without changes in the domestic conditions, the social space in which the initial socialization of the individual took place. Nevertheless, it was realized that no country could ever make ‘significant progress in civilization whose females were sunk in ignorance.’ 

Abolition of Sati

Sati, a practice where widows self-immolated with their husbands’ bodies, faced restrictions under early British rule, but it was Rammohan Roy and other Indian reformers who led the charge against it. 

• Regulation XVII of 1829 of the Bengal Code, encouraged by the British East India Company, declared sati illegal and punishable as culpable homicide. 
  • Rammohan Roy condemned Sati as “murder according to every shastra.”

Ban of Infanticide

• Infanticide was another gruesome practice, especially prevalent among Bengalis and Rajputs, driven by economic concerns and societal pressures. 
  • British regulations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, like Regulations XXI of 1795 and Act III of 1804, sought to curb infanticide, making it equivalent to murder.
• Social Reforms and Legislative Measures: Efforts were also made to promote widow remarriage and discourage child marriage. 
  • The Brahmo Samaj played a significant role in advocating widow remarriage within its community. 
  • The government passed an Act in 1870 to compel parents to register all births and verify female children, especially in areas where infanticide was practiced discreetly.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Course

Legalisation of Widow Remarriage

Pt. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Principal of Sanskrit College in Calcutta, played a significant role in advocating for widow remarriage. He researched ancient Sanskrit texts to demonstrate that widow remarriage was sanctioned in Vedic scriptures. 

• Vidyasagar, along with 987 others, petitioned the Government of India for legislative action, leading to the passing of the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (Act XV of 1856), which legalized the marriage of widows and recognized children from such marriages as legitimate. 
• However, the success of widow remarriage reform was limited in Bengal.

• Championing Widow Remarriage: In Western India, Professor D. K. Karve and Veeresalingam Pantulu in Madras also championed the cause of widow remarriage. 
  • Professor Karve, who later became a professor at Fergusson College, married a Brahmin widow and dedicated his life to improving the lives of Hindu widows. 
  • He established a Widows’ Home in Pune in 1899 to provide them opportunities in professions like teaching, medicine, and nursing, making them self-sufficient. 
  • In 1916, he founded the Indian Women’s University in Bombay.

Ban on Child Marriage 

• Early Legislative Efforts: Legislation against child marriage began in 1872 with the Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), which prohibited the marriage of girls below 18 and boys below 21. 
  • However, it did not apply to Hindus, Muslims, and other recognized faiths, limiting its impact. 
• Subsequent Legislation: B. M. Malabari, a Parsi reformer, led a campaign against child marriage, resulting in the Age of Consent Act (1891), which forbade the marriage of girls below 12. 
  • The Sharda Act (1930) raised the marriage age further and imposed penalties for marriages involving boys under 18 and girls under 14. 
• Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act of 1978 increased the marriage age for girls from 15 to 18 and for boys from 18 to 21.

Women Education

• Female education faced misconceptions in 19th-century Hindu society, with false beliefs that it went against Hindu scriptures and led to widowhood. 
  • Christian missionaries, led by J.E.D. Bethune established schools for girls in Calcutta, while Pt. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was involved with numerous girls’ schools in Bengal. 
• In Bombay: Students of the Elphinstone Institute spearheaded the movement for women’s education. 
  • Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were among the active promoters of girls’ schools in Maharashtra. 
• Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education in 1854 emphasized the importance of female education. 
• Women’s Medical Service played a significant role in training nurses and midwives in 1914. 
  • Professor D.K. Karve established the Indian Women’s University in 1916, a notable institution dedicated to educating women. 
  • Lady Hardinge Medical College was also inaugurated in Delhi in the same year.
• Gandhi actively campaigned against the purdah system for women, urging them to participate in the nationalist struggle by picketing and spinning. 
  • In the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, women played a significant role and were willing to face arrest, earning praise from foreign observers for their emancipation efforts.

Women’s Organisations

Bharat Stree Mahamandal: In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the inaugural meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad. This marked the establishment of one of the earliest women’s organizations in India, led by a woman. 

• Aim: Its goals encompassed advancing women’s education, abolishing the purdah system, and enhancing the socio-economic and political standing of women throughout the country. 
  • Sarla Devi believed that those working towards women’s empowerment lived “under the shade of Manu.
• Ladies Social Conference: Ramabai Ranade established the Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad) in 1904 in Bombay, operating under the umbrella of the National Social Conference. 
• Arya Mahila Samaj: Pandita Ramabai Saraswati established the Arya Mahila Samaj to champion the cause of women. She advocated for improvements in the educational curriculum for Indian women before the English Education Commission, a matter that was brought to the attention of Queen Victoria. 
• This led to the initiation of medical education for women, starting at Lady Dufferin College. Later, Ramabai Ranade established a branch of Arya Mahila Samaj in Bombay.
  
• National Council Of Women: In 1925, the National Council of Women in India, a branch of the International Council of Women, was established. Mehribai Tata played a crucial role in its formation, emphasizing that the purdah system, caste distinctions, and lack of education hindered women from contributing to solving societal issues. 
• Other notable women on the council’s executive committee included Cornelia Sarabji, India’s first female barrister; Tarabai Premchand, the wife of a wealthy banker; Shaffi Tyabji, a member of a prominent Muslim family in Mumbai; and Maharani Sucharu Devi, the daughter of Keshab Chandra Sen. 
• Critics, however, argued that these women were following a philanthropic-style akin to that of upper-class English women.
• All India Women’s Conference (AIWC): The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), established by Margaret Cousins in 1927, was perhaps the first women’s organization with an egalitarian approach. 
• Its inaugural conference took place at Fergusson College, Pune. Prominent founding members included Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad, Rani Sahiba of Sangli, Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya, and Lady Dorab Tata. 
• The AIWC aimed to build a society based on principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights, and opportunities. 
• It sought to ensure that every individual had access to life’s essentials, determined not by birth or gender but through planned social distribution. 

Enroll now for UPSC Online Course

Conclusion

The evolution of women’s rights in India reveals a profound journey from systemic oppression to progressive reform. Early practices such as infanticide, sati, and child marriage were vigorously challenged by reformers like Rammohan Roy, Vidyasagar, and Karve. Legislative changes, coupled with efforts from organizations and activists, significantly improved women’s education, marriage rights, and societal roles. Despite notable strides, continued efforts are essential to fully realize gender equality and empower women across all sectors.

Sign up for the PWOnlyIAS Online Course by Physics Wallah and start your journey to IAS success today!

DOWNLOAD PDF