Impact of Militant Nationalism and the Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory

Early nationalists consciously attempted to allay minority apprehensions. During the second Congress session in 1886, Dadabhai Naoroji, the presiding figure, declared the Congress’s intention not to address socio-religious issues in its forums. In 1889, the Congress resolved not to take up any issue opposed by the Muslims. 

Impact

Emergence of Hindu Nationalism: However, with the advent of militant nationalism, a discernible Hindu nationalist undertone became evident in nationalist politics. 

• Initiatives like Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, anti-cow slaughter campaigns, Aurobindo’s vision of an Aryanised world, the Swadeshi Movement featuring rituals like dips in the Ganga, and revolutionary activities with oath-taking before goddesses generated suspicion. 
• The communal aspect in the Lucknow Pact (1916) and the Khilafat agitation (1920-22) was too prominent to be dismissed lightly.
• Nationalism vs. Religious Sentiments: When the Khilafat question arose, some Congress members felt unease, considering the issue less about nationalism and more about religious sentiments. 
• • The fight against imperialism in Britain in this case centered not on the economic and political consequences of imperialism but on the perceived threat to the Caliph and certain holy places of Islam. 
  • Muslim sympathy for Turkey stemmed from religious grounds. Even later, the heroes, myths, and cultural traditions that Muslims invoked belonged not to the history of India but to the history of West Asia.
• While this tendency did not immediately clash with Indian nationalism and rendered its supporters anti-imperialist, in the long run, it fostered the habit of approaching political questions from a religious perspective.

Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory

The progression of the two-nation theory can be traced through the following milestones:

• 1887: A direct assault on the Congress was orchestrated by Dufferin, the viceroy, and Colvin, the Lt. Governor of the United Provinces. Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Bhinga were positioned as an anti-Congress front by the government. 
  • Syed Ahmed Khan urged educated Muslims to distance themselves from the Congress, although some Muslims, including Badruddin Tyabji, Mir Musharraf Hussain, A. Bhimji, and Hamid Ali Khan, did join the Congress.
• 1906: Agha Khan led a Muslim delegation (known as the Shimla delegation) to the viceroy, Lord Minto, demanding separate electorates for Muslims at all levels. 
  • They sought Muslim representation not just in proportion to their population but also reflecting their “political importance and contribution to the British Empire.” 
    • Minto assured them of special communal representation beyond their population share for their “extraordinary service” to the empire. 
  • The All India Muslim League was founded by Agha Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, and Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk to advocate loyalty to the British government and deter Muslim intelligentsia from aligning with the Congress.
• 1909: Separate electorates were granted under Morley-Minto Reforms. The Punjab Hindu Sabha, founded by U.N. Mukherji and Lal Chand, also emerged.
• 1915: The first session of All India Hindu Mahasabha was held under the Maharaja of Kasim Bazar.
• 1912-24: During this period, the Muslim League was influenced by younger Muslim nationalists, but their nationalism was imbued with a communal perspective on political issues.
• 1916: The Congress accepted the Muslim League’s demand for separate electorates. Although they presented joint demands to the government, the Congress and the League maintained separate political identities. 
  • This marked the Congress’s political validation of the Muslim League’s existence.
• 1920-22: Muslims participated in the Rowlatt and Khilafat Non-Cooperation movements, but a communal element persisted in the political outlook of Muslims.
• 1920s: Communal riots cast a shadow over the country. The Arya Samajists initiated Shuddhi (purification) and Sangathan (organization) movements, aiming to reconvert those who had converted to Islam. In retaliation, Muslims started the Tabligh and Tanzim movements. 
  • Some nationalists also adopted communal opinions. The Swarajists, divided along communal lines, saw many Responsivists joining the Hindu Mahasabha. 
  • The Ali brothers, after initially aligning with the Congress, accused it of protecting only Hindu interests. 
  • The Congress struggled to formulate an effective strategy against the rise of communalism.
• 1928: The Nehru Report on constitutional reforms proposed by the Congress faced opposition from Muslim hardliners and the Sikh League. Jinnah’s fourteen points demanded separate electorates, reservations for Muslims in government service, and self-governing bodies. 
  • In negotiating with the Muslim League, the Congress made several mistakes, including legitimizing the League’s politics, marginalizing secular, nationalist Muslims, encouraging similar demands from other communities, and complicating the fight against communalism.
• 1930-34: Some Muslim groups, such as the Jamaati-ulema-i-Hind, the State of Kashmir, and Khudai Khidmatgars, participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. 
  • However, Muslim participation did not reach the level seen in the Khilafat agitation. 
  • While the Congress refrained from participating in two of the three round table conferences in London discussing further constitutional reforms, communalists attended all three.
• 1932: The Communal Award accepted all Muslim communal demands outlined in the 14 points.
• After 1937: Following the Muslim League’s poor performance in the 1937 provincial elections, it embraced extreme communalism. 
  • The notion of Muslims as not just a minority but a separate nation gained prominence, initially proposed by young Muslim intellectual Rahmat Ali in the early 1930s and further developed by the poet Iqbal. 
  • Communalism transformed into an organized mass movement rooted in the middle and upper classes. 
    • Figures like Z.A. Suleri, F.M. Durrani, and Fazl-ul-Haq launched vicious propaganda against the Congress, fueling extreme communalism with fear, hatred, and violence in both words and actions.
• Until 1937, there existed a form of liberal communalism that revolved around safeguards and reservations. 
  • This type of communalism maintained a communal identity while upholding liberal, democratic, humanistic, and nationalistic values. 
  • It embraced the idea that these diverse communities could be united into one nation, guided by a common national interest.

The extreme communalism among Muslims found resonance in the militant communal nationalism of Hindus, as represented by organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha and RSS, and the ideologies of leaders like Golwalkar. Several factors contributed to the rise of extreme communalism:

• As radicalization increased, reactionary elements sought a social base through channels of communalism.
• The colonial administration, having exhausted other means to divide nationalists, turned to communal tactics.
• Previous failures to counteract communal tendencies had emboldened communal forces.

• During 1937-39, Jinnah obstructed any potential for conciliation by presenting an unrealistic demand: that the Congress declare itself a Hindu organization and recognize the Muslim League as the sole representative of Indian Muslims.
• On March 24, 1940, the Lahore session of the Muslim League witnessed the passage of the ‘Pakistan Resolution.’ 
  • This resolution called for the “grouping of all geographically contiguous Muslim majority areas (primarily north-western and eastern India) into independent states where the constituent units would be autonomous and sovereign, with adequate safeguards for Muslims in other areas where they are in a minority.”
• During the Second World War, the British India Government granted virtual veto power to the League in political settlements. Leveraging this privilege, the League steadfastly adhered to its demand for a separate Pakistan throughout negotiations under the August Offer, Cripps’ proposals, Shimla Conference, and Cabinet Mission Plan. 
  • Eventually, the League achieved its aspiration—an independent Pakistan comprising the Muslim-majority areas of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, North-West Frontier Province, and Bengal in 1947.

Conclusion

The transformation of militant nationalism and the two-nation theory had a profound impact on the political landscape of South Asia. At first, attempts to mend differences between communities were outshined by the growing Hindu nationalism and rising religious communalism, setting the stage for the development of the two-nation theory. As tensions among communities increased, these beliefs solidified into a unique political and national identity, leading to the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. This procedure highlights the significant influence of religious and communal politics on the history of the subcontinent.

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